Small Group Experiences

The need to affiliate with others and to be accepted by them is hypothesized to be as basic to our psychological well being as hunger and thirst are to our physical well being (Raviester and Leary, 1995). (Meeting, Liking, and Becoming Acquainted, SPT Reader P. 50) One doesn’t begin to realize how important social interaction is until it is gone. Each individual seeks some sort of relationship throughout his or her lives, even as an infant. Relationships are looked as a bond between two individuals, but it is not limited between those two.People all have the need to affiliate, but not all people are the same and differ in the strength of their need for affiliation. When meeting new people in a small group experience you are faced with many different emotions, situations, and many thoughts racing through your mind. If I viewed my small group experience through the concept of symbolic interaction theory, founded by Tom Shibutani, you begin to gain knowledge and an understanding of what is going on. The symbolic interaction theory is that people act on symbolic meanings that they find in situations.Immersing yourself into the small group allows one to create different relationships around oneself. The challenge is to then create shared and similar meanings. The meanings are then personalized by an interpretive process, and after being processed one looks to others to externally view our modifications. When doing this you develop your own self-concept of one another. When we sat down as a group we each introduced ourselves. It was awkward at first, but then we all shared a similar thought and started to interact with each other to avoid awkward silence and situation.The definition of the situation is the reactions to the shared agreements between one another and each member of the group expected one another to participate in the activity and share ideas together. Once established, we discussed the best way to meet people, what we found attractive, and how to start a conversation. Realizing how easy it is to be uneasy of one’s self-esteem, I started to question my self and internalizing the judgments and body gestures from my small group members. When sharing my self -image and personal experiences made me realize the similarities and differences amongst the group and myself.By engaging in a conversation of diverse issues and topics, I began to realize whom I relate to. Each member of the group, only aware of one similarity, attending the same class, seemed very shy and distanced from one another. At the start of the activity we were all conservative and shy of one another. Since not one member of the group took initiative to choose an engaging topic to talk about, it was difficult to create a conversation. It was awkward up until one person decided to pick a topic.When we shared the same views and interest towards that one particular topic, the group became more alive and aware of the other members in the group. Since acting tim id at the start of the group, I began to gain confidence and more stability in my own self-esteem, once the group became vivid and energetic. Being timid leads to defense, since starting the small group in my defense up it was hard to become acquainted with other members of the group. Once we proceeded and broke the initial barrier of awkwardness, I began to feel more at ease and calm when approached by another member.According to Horney’s theory, one consists of two selves; a real self and an idealized self. The â€Å"idealized self† is very similar to an â€Å"impossible self†. The â€Å"real self† is similar to a more â€Å"possible self†. When each individual were on similar energy levels, the group looked to be in sync with one another. Each individual in the group had a realistic view of themselves because of the lack of random behavior. I believe that not one of the group members was attempting to over achieve or be distant from the group.I acted shy at first approaching the situation in â€Å"defense mode†, and may have shown a lack of self-confidence, or the evaluation of my own self. I had a defense barrier when entering this small group experience exercise, but towards the middle of the conversation, I realized that my barrier was down and I was engaging in conversations as if I knew these individuals for years. Then I realized we all had similar opinions and set similar goals. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needsbegin with Physiological needs like food, water, etc.Then â€Å"Safety†, â€Å"Belonging†, â€Å"Esteem†, and finally, â€Å"Self-actualization†, self-actualization is similar to self-fulfillment. If one cannot satisfy those basic needs you become susceptible to feelings and emotions of unhappiness. The personal need of mine in the group experience was to ask my peers a series of questions to gain information and to introduce myself to new individuals. I also wanted to feel like I accomplished my goals and feel like I did my part in this small group experience, these feelings lead to my â€Å"self-esteem† and my â€Å"self-image†.Having all shared the same feeling of fulfilling ones need amongst the group, brought the group together and helped me recognize my role. Each had their own interpersonal needs; the need to feel â€Å"apart† of the group, and the need to control. This helped the group to the meaning to how and why we interacted in the first place. I believe once we finished he exercise that my won personal needs were met and so were that of the other individual. The needs that were fulfilled creating a sense of accomplishment and joy, we then exchanged email addresses and went separate ways.In conclusion to this â€Å"experiment† or â€Å"experience†, it was that of our basic and interpersonal needs that brought the group together. One looks for similar characteristics in others to fulfill our own wa nts and needs. Consciously and subconsciously one tries to satisfy ones own persons needs. The choices are made that decide who one wishes to surround themselves with based upon our judgments. Judgments decide a lot but most important it decides if one needs the person, then ultimately lead to one interacting or not.Bibliography Society and Personality Tamotsu Shibutani, 1961 Sociology 104 Reader Meloy and Mitchell

Developmental Theory, Moral Development, and Gender and Cultural Influences

Most people are confused about how humans grow, mature, and develop a unique personality. This research paper will discuss the two different theories of Kohlberg and Erikson pertaining to human’s personality, moral development, and their gender and cultural differences.It will further explain the role of each stage of human development in shaping a certain aspect of their behavior, and how it changes over a period of time. Developmental Theory, Moral Development, and Gender and Cultural Influences Human beings start to develop from the time of their birth and will continuously change and develop until they reach the stage of adulthood.There are many theories that attempt to explain how human beings develop their personalities and identities over a period of time. Looking at the different theoretical views in psychology, it can be very confusing and misleading in terms of how an individual matures and develops.However, these theories will further explain and somehow let people understand the whole process of maturation and development of an individual. Two developmental theories will be discussed in this paper, as well as their similarities and differences.The paper also aims to present how these theories affect the development of an individual from birth to adulthood. The theories to be discussed are Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.Erikson's Model of Psychosocial DevelopmentErik Erikson is a developmental psychologist who believes that a person develops their personality in a series of stage and ages. Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson's model of psychosocial development is a very significant, highly regarded, and meaningful thought.Erikson developed the eight stages of psychosocial development of an individual. In each stage, he believes that people experience problems and conflicts in life; thus, it serve s as a turning point in a person’s development throughout his or her life stages. These problems are expected to develop or impede the psychological ability of an individual (Wagner, 2008). The first stage of Erikson’s developmental theory is the Trust vs. Mistrust. This occurs between births and when a child reaches one year old. It is said to be the most fundamental stage in life.It is a stage where a child learns to trust the people around such as the mother or parents who are expected to be there and provide them with their vital needs like care, love, trust and food. Since an infant is absolutely dependent, developing trust is usually based on dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.If a child finally develops trust, he or she will now feel secure living in the world. On the other hand, if trust is not developed in this stage, a child may develop fear and a belief that he or she lives in an unpredictable and conflicting environment (Chelsi, 2006 ). The second stage occurs when a child becomes a toddler.This stage is called Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt. In this stage of development, early childhood is focused on enhancing a greater sense of personal control. For instance, when a child learns to control certain parts of his or her body like toilet training and learning how to walk, then he or she will have a sense of control.This child will feel independent as well and develop a sense of autonomy to do something on his or her own. However, if the child fails to attain personal control, it will result in feelings of shame and doubt (Wolfe, 2007). Stage three of Erikson’s theory is called Initiative vs.  Guilt.This stage happens when a child becomes preschool already between the ages of four and five. In this stage, a child become more active and will play and explore a lot. It is also where a child develops a conscience and begins to understand what is right from wrong.Support is extremely needed in this stage because if it is not present, feelings of guilt can develop and will be the source of conflict later in the child’s life (Wagner, 2008). Fourth stage in this theory is Industry vs. Inferiority. This stage occurs when a child reaches the age of 2-12 years old and when they attend early school.Every child needs to feel that he or she has achieved something in every work he or she does, most especially in school. That is why school is very important in this stage of development. If a child constantly successfully achieves something with the use of his or her own skill or ability, there will be a greater chance that the child will feel proud and confident within him- or herself. On the other hand, if the child fails to achieve something, it may result in feelings of inferiority and low self-esteem in the child’s personality (Wagner, 2008). Identity vs. Confusion makes up the fifth stage of Erikson’s theory.This stage takes place during the adolescence period of an individua l. Adolescents will try to discover their identity and figure out their personality and where they should belong in the world. It is the stage wherein a child begins experimenting since it is a way to discover him- or herself. If the child was not able to discover and know him- or herself, then there will be role and identity confusion in them. Consequently, he or she will be confused with his or her function in the world and can cause dilemma later on in the next stages of life (Chelsi, 2006).The sixth stage of this theory is Intimacy vs. IsolationThis happens during early adulthood between the ages of 18 and 40. It is a stage wherein a person explores personal relationship, specifically intimate relationships with other people. Thus, in this stage, people begin to date and find a partner to marry.Those who are successful will achieve a sense of intimacy and security from their partner or other people, while failure to do so may result in isolation and feeling of loneliness and dep ression (Wagner, 2008). Stage seven occurs at the age of 40 to 65, and it is called Generativity vs. Stagnation. In this stage, an individual continues to build lives but focuses now with career and family.This is where a person learns to care and be concerned for other people. Being active and participative in the world is what people feel if they succeed in this stage. However, having less self-worth is what people would feel if they fail to meet this stage successfully (Wagner, 2008). Lastly, the eighth stage in Erikson’s theory is called integrity vs. despair. This occurs in old age between ages fifty and up. It is a stage where people look back on their life and reflect on what happened.There may be a feeling of satisfaction or regret. They will have a sense of integrity when they feel happy and fulfilled with what happened in their life, while they may feel despair and bitterness if they think that their life was just a waste. Life is full of learning new things and cha llenges that help people grow and develop. This theory of Erikson is truly helpful for understanding a child and adult’s development (Wagner, 2008). The six stages of Erikson’s theory is related to the gender differences of an individual, with the fifth stage (Identity vs.Confusion) being the more crucial.This is because in this stage, it is said that people are try to seek their real personality and identity by choosing where they should belong and knowing their purpose in life (Streitmatter, 1993). Environmental, cultural, and ethnicity factors are present in the whole stage of a person’s development. These factors influence an individual over the period of time when a person matures and lives his or her life. Environment such as the family, school, and the whole society is always involved in the process.In addition, a certain culture and ethnicity of a person may give a great influence as well in shaping an individual’s personality, which makes them a certain persona living and functioning in the world. There may be a culture that is acceptable to the norms of a specific group of people, but then that specific culture may not be common and not acceptable to the other, so it is very important to know also where a person originated so that a person may understand why some people has different beliefs, values, and behavior in life (Child Development, 2006).Kohlberg’s Developmental Model of Moral Development Kohlberg’s theory is quite different from Erikson’s theory. His theory focuses on the moral development. It is divided into three levels with two different stages on each level, which gives a total of six different stages of moral development. Level one is the pre-conventional morality level, and it has two stages. The first stage is the obedience and punishment orientation. It is a stage wherein a child learns what is right and wrong actions and behavior.Children also learn in this stage that for every actio n they make they will gain a certain consequences of it. For example, if a child does something good, then they will be rewarded. On the other hand, if a child does something bad, then they will know that there will be a certain punishment and consequences for their actions. The second stage under pre-conventional level is called individualism and exchange. At this stage, a child learns to be concerned not only for himself or herself but for other people as well.Children start to learn reciprocity and stand in the position of doing something for other people if it is for his or her self-interest. Hence, the child will follow a certain rule if he or she knows that she or he will gain something from it. Children at this stage are very focused and concerned with fairness and equality. The justice here is â€Å"do unto others what as they do unto to you. † Thus, if a person does something good to somebody, then he or she expects that the person will do something good to him or he r as well.The same thing happens if a person does something bad to somebody; he or she then can expect that the person will do something bad to him or her in return (Crain, 1985). Level two is conventional morality, and the third stage is good interpersonal relationships.In this stage, children do something because they already know that it is good, and they will be able to have good relationship with family, classmates, friends, and neighbors. They now know the concepts of trust, care, love, and being concern with other people, giving them a good impression of themselves from other people’s perspective.In this stage, children aim to please people around them, and intentions are basically all good, since they are very concerned with having a good image to portray in the society, and since they are expected to behave in a way that the society asks them to behave. Fourth stage is maintaining the social order. It is still quite related to the third stage, but in this stage, a pe rson become fully concerned not only the people around them but the whole society and environment already.Now in this stage, a person learns about obeying laws and respecting the people and the authority, and they focus on performing a certain duty so that there will be a social order in the society. People at this stage will be knowledgeable about the societal law, and they are automatically expected to abide such laws that are imposed into their society and environment (Crain, 1985). Next is level three, and it is called the post-conventional morality where the last two stages lies ahead. The fifth stage is social contract and individual rights.During this stage, an individual believes and looks into his or her own moral values and principles in life and becomes aware that it should be also good for the society. People develop their own opinions, beliefs, and values in life in this stage.They also understand that codes of conduct are relative to their social group. This varies fro m culture to culture and subgroup to subgroup. A person enters into an agreement with fellow human beings to treat them fairly and nicely and to respect authority when it is equally moral and deserved. Lastly, the sixth stage is called the universal principles.This stage involves the universal ethical principles in an individual’s life. A person uses his or her conscience and their own ethical principles to decide what is right and wrong behavior and actions. Here people are motivated by their conscience that surpasses cultural, religious, or social convention rules (Uncgrad, 2007). Kohlberg’s theory and stages of moral development is said to affect the gender differences, environmental, cultural, and ethnic influences in ways. A research says that gender differences have no effect in the moral judgment of a person.However, they discovered that female are more likely to mature than male in the adolescent stage, making female more advanced when it comes to moral reasoni ng. Research states that girls are generally about two years ahead of boys in cerebral cortical and social-cognitive functioning (Silberman & Snarey, 2007). On the other hand, factors such as the environment, culture, and ethnicity of a person have a great effect also in developing a person’s moral judgment since these are factors that are always present in an individual’s life.For instance, when two different races such as Western people and Asian people are compared, the difference in culture and beliefs is very evident that it is only likely that they will have different moral judgment (Mulder, 1997). Both theories of Kohlberg and Erikson critically discuss and explain how a person builds their personality and moral development in the life span of an individual.Understanding both different stages of Kohlberg and Erikson will also prevent people from having conflicts and dilemmas in facing and dealing with life since people already know the sources and origins of hum an’s personality and moral development. References Chelsi (2006). Erik Erikson's Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development. Associated Content. Crain, W.C (1985). Chapter Seven: Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. Theories of  Development   (pp. 118-136). US: Prentice-Hall. Mulder, B. (1997). Moral Development's Development: Recent Research. Hope College.  Retrieved October 14, 2008 from http://www.hope.edu/academic/psychology/335/webrep/moraldev.html. Quintana, S. M. , et al. (2006). Race, Ethnicity, and Culture in Child Development:  Contemporary Research and Future Directions. Child Development, 77 (5), 1129-1141. Silberman M. A & Snarey J. (2007). Gender differences in moral development  during early adolescence: The contribution of sex-related variations in maturation. Current Psychology, 12 (2), 163-171. Streitmatter, J. (1993). Gender differences in identity development: An examination of  longitudinal data. Adolescence, 28, 55–66. Uncgrad, (2007). Kohlberg's Stages of Development. Associated Content. Retrieved October 14, 2008 from  http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/461832/kohlbergs_stages_of_development html?cat=7. Van Wagner, K. (2005). Stages of Psychosocial Development. About.com  Retrieved October 14, 2008 from  http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/psychosocial.htm. Wolfe Good (2007). Erik Homburger Erikson's Grid of Psychosocial Stages of Childhood  Development. Associated Content. Retrieved October 14, 2008 from  http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/299357/erik_homburger_eriksons_grid_of_psychosocial.html?cat=58.

Elderly poverty Essay

By 2050, the number of elderly people will be high (aged 65 and above) 20 percent of the population worldwide. Given the pressure on the demand for public services such as pensions, health services and housing facilities. Elderly poverty is both a social and a financial problem. Poverty rates among the elderly tend to be highest among women, above all widows over the age of 75. This is mainly due to pension allowances that have traditionally been associated with employment history. In 2000, it was estimated that more than a third of Ireland’s elderly population was living in poverty. Ireland has been criticized for failing to protect its most vulnerable citizens, the elderly. Despite having a state pension scheme for the vulnerable group, there is still a big gap. Poverty rates among the elderly people have changed over the time and this is likely to project (Thomas, 1995). Among the problems faced by the elderly include, food insecurity and poor nutrition. Food insecurity it is the insufficiency in the quality of food intake due to lack of resources which mainly focuses on inaccessibility and unavailable of resources among the elderly as a result of their impairment and health problems. This study reveals that food insecurity is another risk factor associated with poorer nutritional and health status among older persons. Food insecurity is another problem facing elderly people. It has an effect on health and quality nutritional status. Further, it can also bring physical, emotional and economic burdens to the elderly persons themselves. Hence, understanding the cost of food insecurity is the major phenomena in addressing food related issues in elderly persons and providing information to better their nutrition and health services for an ever-increasing and diverse older population. However, nutritional status and consequences of food insecurity mainly focuses on the younger, the adult, women and children. The consequences include decreased nutritional eating habits, inadequate food supply, impairment and an increase in body weight forgetting about the elderly people at large. Food insecurity among elderly persons requires consideration of various determinants of nutritional and health status significant to a particular age group. Concerning food insecurity among the elderly there is the need for investment in long term self-sufficiency projects, supportive policy systems to address issues about the right to food and participation of government, community and other institutions to ensure food security (Laurence, 1990) Health is another issue facing the elderly living in poverty because of the limited incomes, educational achievements and no health insurance facilities. For instance the case of elderly Hispanic who depend on the assistance from the relatives and supplemental security incomes to cope with their deteriorating health issues. Increasing poverty, the socio-demographic profile of the elderly population is rapidly changing, especially with the weakening of extended family ties and lineage-based support systems. Usually, the extended family has been the main source of livelihood support for the elderly in sub-Saharan Africa, taking care of their parents when they are not economically dynamic. With the increase in poverty and health related issues like HIV/AIDS epidemic on the elderly and on the social background in Africa and the death of young people leaves the elderly people in charge. Elderly persons play a key role not only in providing care for persons with HIV/AIDS but also in caring for AIDS orphans which effects them health wise because they do not have enough energy to run up and down looking for food, income to care for the sick. For illustration, in Kenya the elderly people were the main care-givers for people infected with HIV/AIDS and also take care of the orphans. Elderly people also face the problem of accessibility. Since, most of them live places inaccessible to the basic facilities like the health care, incase they are sick access them is very hard and some of the end up not getting to this services because they are weak. Housing; elderly people is largely increasing as a result of poverty and inadequate affordable housing. By housing I mean access to clean and safe water, toilet facilities and waste collection facilities. Among the households especially headed by the elderly there are a few chances of them affording decent house even though they receive assistance like 37 percent of the elderly in America but this is not enough. (Thomas 1995). Every human being needs a range of basic necessities irrespective of age. While poverty exists everywhere, it is most harsh in developing countries, where more than one person in five lives on less than one dollar per day. Reducing poverty among the vulnerable people is an international goal of development and the many international organizations working towards this initiative. Strategies on how to reduce poverty are, however as many as the causes of poverty. For example the World Bank’s anti-poverty plan, for example, depends heavily on reducing poverty though the promotion of economic growth. We also have the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), that campaign for the reduction of severe poverty among the vulnerable groups REFERENCE Thomas, A. (1995). Old and homeless: an overview of current practice, Westport: Greenwood publishing group. Laurence, E. (1990). Inner city poverty in the United States, New York: National Academies Press.

Business Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 31

Business Ethics - Essay Example Virtue theory encompasses the individual behavior of an individual in the wider realm of character to benefit self and others. It is similar to utilitarianism that supports the happiness of person irrespective of societal conventions unless it affects their acceptable moral concepts. However, in terms of addressing values, deontological ethics differs from other theories because it is concerned with one’s obligation or duty to do good (Trevino & Nelson, 2011). In other words, while virtue theory espouses a consequence as a result of contravening tolerable values, it imposes penalties on the person. This is different from deontological ethics or utilitarianism that largely focuses on the maximization of utility. According to Mill who started utilitarianism, reducing suffering through happiness is the role and responsibility of a person unlike the deontological perspective of attaining a good feeling as a duty. Similarly, in explaining moral concepts and values, all the theories concur especially in organizations on the need for workers to practice proper ethical conduct irrespective of the immediate gain. It, thus, becomes part of an organizational culture where morality emanates from each individual. Another interesting aspect of the theories involves the possible ramifications in cases of slow implementation especially in organizational contexts. In my personal experience, for example, I think virtue theory explains ethics better than utilitarianism does to morality. This is because while the former revolves around character traits and habits of an individual, utilitarianism is an innate feeling that lacks respect for either good or bad. Contrastingly, while moral concepts in society are defined by people and culture, deontological ethics fails to demonstrate how free will contributes to a universal conduct found in most companies. It also fails to acknowledge the basic tenets of managing ethical challenges especially when they

'The analytical study of communication and media is central to Essay

'The analytical study of communication and media is central to understanding the ways we live now'. Discuss - Essay Example Hence, the essence is communication and its expression is through different media including language. The scope of variety in media is reflected in the statement, â€Å"In asking what computers can do, we are drawn into asking what people do with them, and in the end into addressing the fundamental question of what it means to be human† (Winograd and Flores 1986, p.7). Here, the medium referred to is computers. Keeping in view this diversity in media forms and the different ways of communication that is made through them, this essay is an attempt to understand, how and why communication and media is central to understanding the ways we live now. Now we have two types of media; one is the media that helps communication among two individuals, or within a small group which is called local media and the second is mass media or global media (Machin and Leeuwen, 2007, p.7-10). While media like a low range microphone or a telephone are considered as included in the first category, me dia like, newspapers, magazines, film, radio etc. are considered as mass media because they can at a time reach out to ‘n’ number of people (Machin and Leeuwen, 2007, p.7-10). ... example, Hall (19 June 1992, p.8) has drawn attention to the creation of new ‘cultures of hybridity†, brought about by the interaction of local media with the global (mass) media. Here, the reference is to a new kind of culture that is emerging out of the interactions with local and global media. It has to be remembered that before mass media emerged, â€Å"public life was linked to a common locale; an event became public when a plurality of people physically congregated to hear and see the communication of a message, whether a band of traveling minstrels or an execution in the town square† (Craig, 2004, p.6). In this way, media created a new kind of public life and also helped us to understand it as well. In the context of a medium like television, when viewed in a house hold, it has been observed that, â€Å"the spatial separation of producer from consumer, combined with the temporal simultaneity and continuity of transmission and reception, have given rise to a n ‘aesthetic’ and a communicative style† (Moores, 2000, p.13). It is through this complex prism of space and time, that we now view life. Another interesting aspect has been that the media has made it possible for us to see ourselves very closely and from new different angles. This is why we say that now our life is â€Å"mediated† (Craig, 2004, p.4). Especially, media and the communication through them have been viewed as â€Å"the sites where the meanings of public life are generated, debated and evaluated† (Craig, 2004, p.4). Media and communication have been crucial in developing our outlook of a global society, in expanding our vision of the world, bringing news from all around the world to us within no time, media and communication have made us aware what we are, by helping our knowledge to

DBMS Support and Security Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

DBMS Support and Security - Research Paper Example ought to adopt security strategies, for instance, tagging data with a level of confidentiality to make sure only those permitted have access to such data (Connolly and Begg 2009). Security strategies are designed as the overall plans to mitigate risk. As mentioned earlier, most organizations have security strategies, but miss out on database security or do not adequately address the issue. A comprehensive security strategy must lessen the overall possibility of loss or harm to an organization’s data. Furthermore, the strategy must focus on the business data concerns from a statutory, contractual and legal perspective. There exist multiple regulatory standards and requirements that have imposed on the organization to address information security risks. Contracts are making it necessary to organizations to consider security of their data at all levels. Proactive database security management and planning can save organizations significant amounts of money and reduce the overall exposure to risk. Striking a balance between the organizational objectives and security requirements is a task that squarely falls on the IT department. They are charged with developing the ICT policy for companies in consultation with management, operational support and other stakeholders. The policies aim to increase the benefits of implementing IT in business. A comprehensive support and security strategy should touch on the following areas. First, it should have a clear definition of organizational control objectives and have controls to meet those objectives. The organizational control objectives are the processes of evaluating, assigning and regulating resources on a continuous basis to meet organization’s goals. It should then have feasible approaches to meet the objectives with metrics and/or benchmark standards to manage the controls. It is also necessary to have a clear implementation of the controls and have testing and maintenance tasks while going forward. The motivation

A company that provide great customer service in its industry Essay

A company that provide great customer service in its industry - Essay Example nt here to understand the concept which was coined by George Ritzer whereby he kept the name ‘McDonaldization’ which is in relevance with the continuation of Max Webers theories related with bureaucracies. (Bassett, 1992) Max Weber has put in place a definition related with bureaucracy as being a large hierarchical organization which governs the basis of formal rules and regulations and which forms a lucid arrangement of tasks that need to be undertaken. McDonald’s believes in satisfying its customers all over the globe as there is a premise to regard the customers as the most important entity for the existence of this international fast food chain. The customers for McDonald’s mean everything for them as they are the people who introduce new and fresh concepts into the restaurant industry every now and then. Workers at the restaurant are given the tasks to grill, preparing French fries, working the front register and lastly taking orders at the drive through windows present at the selected McDonald’s outlets. McDonald’s has a network of authority starting from the workers, crew chiefs, shift managers, salary managers and up till the owner of the outlet in essence. (Lowenstein, 1997) McDonald’s has enforced within the fast food chain an impartial application of rules and policies so that there is no compromise on this tenet at any cost. McDonalds has maintained highest quality standards, personalized greetings at the registers and doors as well as at the drive through windows. McDonald’s has attained the role of being a bureaucratic chain more so because it is the most efficient means of managing a diverse set of people across varied geographic locations and societal segments. This leaves one to wonder as to why the process of McDonaldization has attained so much success when one thinks about McDonald’s. One must attach special linkage with fresh changes and mind-blowing conceptual moves when there is a visualization of McDonald’s in the

Economic of Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Economic of Industry - Essay Example This attracts new players to the field as there are no entry or exit barriers. When the number of players in the industry increases, the industry output increases. This reduces the profit margins of the firms. Will the entry of new players stop at this level No, the entry will not stop until the firms are able to make profits. But as the number of firms increases, the industry is squeezed of profits and the firms start making losses. When the firms start making losses, financially weak and the operationally inefficient leave the industry and that is also because there is no barrier to exit from the industry. The example of the competition in the Video rental market in United States shows how the lack of entry or exit barriers help shape the industry. In the early 1980s when the Video cassette recorder(VCR) and video cassette player (VCD) was available to the consumers it became a must in many of the households. Statistics show that in 1980 less than 1% of American households owned a VCR. But by 1990 over 70% of families owned one. This led to a huge increase in demand for video cassettes. So movie tapes rental business was a very popular ones. The initial players in the industry had huge profits upto five dollars a night and they were able to recover the cost of the tape after a few rentals. But there was no entry barrier in the industry. Looking at the huge demand and the enormous profit levels, many people started the same business. This lead to increase in competition. So between 1982 and 1987 the number of movie tape rental outlets increased by 400%. Gas stations and grocery stores also rented tapes. This led to a downward pressure on the price, so by 1990 the tape rental rates had fallen down to $ 1.50 per night. The profits had fallen down and this caused many firms to exit from the industry. Entry had ceased. The industry had attained its equilibrium in the long run. With the advent of more modern technologies the movie rental industry is going to shrink even more. Due the fact that the product is identical and the industry has no entry and exit barriers, the firms in this kind of industry are price takers. They have very little control over the price, the profits for the firms depends on

An Analysis of the reasons for the catholic Church's Ban of the Book Essay

An Analysis of the reasons for the catholic Church's Ban of the Book Candide by Voltaire - Essay Example The listing of a book under this category made it illegal to possess or have anything to do with the publisher or the content of the book in states where the Catholic Church recognized by the state as the only recognized religion in the world. After the breakaway of the Anglican Church in the 1500s and the Protestant Reformation that was at its peak in the 1600s, a lot of criticisms were raised against the Catholic Church due to several inappropriate actions and deeds of some of its members through art, writings, actions, protests, wars and other forms of communication. In 1759, Voltaire published his book Candide. Voltaire was a man who had moved around Europe and had had several controversial experiences with authorities from Prussia to Geneva and to Lisbon2. He was a playwright who had a number of unpleasant experiences and had so much skepticism about religion, institutions and authorities in Europe and seemed to have lost confidence in all those institutions and had strong conde mnation of them and their actions. The central theme of Candide sought to challenge the assertion of the Church and Lutheran philosophy that this world is the best of all possible worlds and all things work out for the best3. He uses the book, Candide to show that bad things happen to good people and there are many activities in the Europe of his time that were cruel and against humanity. Analysis of Candide The protagonist of the book, Candide was a young nephew of a Baron in Westphalia, present day Germany. His father was unknown so he was seen as a bastard with little rights and privileges in the castle. The Baron was a prosperous noble living a very comfortable life in a castle. He adhered to the popular Protestant belief that this world is the best and all things work together for good. The son of the Baron, Pangloss was a teacher of the religious idea that his father stood for. Pangloss believed and consistently taught that everything in this world exists for a purpose and all things work for the best. To him, every effect had a cause. Pangloss stated that â€Å"Observe, for instance, the nose is formed for spectacles, therefore we wear spectacles, The legs are visibly designed for stockings, accordingly we wear stockings. Stones are hewn to construct castles, therefore My Lord has a magnificent castle; for the greatest baron†4. Obviously, this statement presented Pangloss as a simplistic sycophant who sought to keep his congregants under some form of bondage so that the Baron, himself and his descendants could enjoy a comfortable life whilst the servant class remains under oppression. By presenting Pangloss as such, he sought to show that religion has been used as a tool to keep the working class under some kind of bondage to the Church and the ruling class of Europe in the pre-1750 period. This clearly provoked the church as it was blasphemous. In the events that followed in the book, a young beautiful girl in the castle, Cunegund saw Pangloss, the preacher having a sexual encounter with her mother's chambermaid in the woods. She was introduced to sex and sought to have an affair with Candide. The next day, Candide, who had been fantasizing about Cunegund bumped into her and they began to kiss. This was discovered by the Baron who swiftly threw Candide from the castle. Voltaire seem to have clearly demonstrated through this action that there was immorality being secretly practiced amongst people perceived to be holy in the Church. However, when innocent

Response to liberalism and racial justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Response to liberalism and racial justice - Essay Example I agree with Karl Marx that capitalist societies are characterized by class tensions. Modern capitalist societies are adopting liberalism and racial justice strategies in order to achieve equality and liberty in the society. The liberalism strategies aim to attain class harmony, as opposed to class conflict. The strategy institutes regulatory and social welfare frameworks, which address the grievances of the lower and middle classes (Pilling 56). The racial justice strategy aims to protect and extend constitutionally assured rights to individuals who have traditionally been deprived of their privileges on the basis of race. The strategy is dedicated to maintenance racial parity and fighting racism in all ways through legislative initiatives, community training and organizing, litigation, and public education. These ways aim to address the extensive range of issues, which unreasonably and negatively impact individuals of color (Pilling 59). These strategies are demonstrated by political ideologies in United States especially between Republicans and Democrats. Democrats adopt liberalism strategies through social welfare programs and regulatory frameworks, which aims at addressing the grievances of the lower and middle classes. Republicans aim to dismantle these regulations and programs, and this consistently agitates racial tensions, which are habitually entrenched in class

Money in Baseball Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Money in Baseball - Research Paper Example This was the reason for the increase in the revenues of MLB. To increase the revenues, MLB had signed a deal with the eBay’s unit StubHub that permitted people to buy and sell tickets. This had affected the revenues of MLB and they were being benefited in rising revenues (Isidore, â€Å"Baseball close To Catching NFL as Top $ Sport†). The other sources of revenue generation that was utilized by MLB were the options such as official website of MLB selling different merchandises, tickets and other items through ‘satellite radio broadcasts’, television game packages and other options for revenue (Isidore, â€Å"Baseball Close To Catching NFL As Top $ Sport†). The radio broadcast at the initial phase was merely for free publicity, but as the game became more professional there were contracts between the radio broadcaster and the leagues. At the initial stage there were less revenue generated and it was only at a local level from the local radio broadcasts. Later around the year 1950, Liberty Broadcasting System added National radio broadcasts of the games played in the regular season. The inclusion of national radio as well as television broadcasts has helped in the teams in MLB to generate more revenues (Haupert, â€Å"The Economic History of Major League Baseball†). The television was used as the source for revenue. The league had contract with the television broadcaster and this became the source of revenue that started from 1946. There has been immense increase in the revenue from this source from 1946 till the current situation (Haupert, â€Å"The Economic History of Major League Baseball†). From the franchise value MLB earned revenues. They have created their brand value and this assisted in franchise value appraisal. In the year 1998, the latest team to join MLB had paid US $130 million to MLB for the privilege (Haupert, â€Å"The Economic History of Major League Baseball†).

Cases on Contract Essay Example for Free

Cases on Contract Essay The defendant made the highest bid for the plaintiffs goods at an auction sale, but he withdrew his bid before the fall of the auctioneers hammer. It was held that the defendant was not bound to purchase the goods. His bid amounted to an offer which he was entitled to withdraw at any time before the auctioneer signified acceptance by knocking down the hammer. Note: The common law rule laid down in this case has now been codified in s57(2) Sale of Goods Act 1979. Fisher v Bell (1960) A shopkeeper displayed a flick knife with a price tag in the window. The Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959 made it an offence to offer for sale a flick knife. The shopkeeper was prosecuted in the magistrates court but the Justices declined to convict on the basis that the knife had not, in law, been offered for sale. This decision was upheld by the Queens Bench Divisional Court. Lord Parker CJ stated: It is perfectly clear that according to the ordinary law of contract the display of an article with a price on it in a shop window is merely an invitation to treat. It is in no sense an offer for sale the acceptance of which constitutes a contract. PSGB v Boots (1953) The defendants shop was adapted to the self-service system. The question for the Court of Appeal was whether the sales of certain drugs were effected by or under the supervision of a registered pharmacist. The question was answered in the affirmative. Somervell LJ stated that in the case of an ordinary shop, although goods are displayed and it is intended that customers should go and choose what they want, the contract is not completed until, the customer having indicated the articles which he needs, the shopkeeper, or someone on his behalf, accepts that offer. Then the contract is completed. Partridge v Crittenden (1968) It was an offence to offer for sale certain wild birds. The defendant had advertised in a periodical Quality Bramblefinch cocks, Bramblefinch hens, 25s each. His conviction was quashed by the High Court. Lord Parker CJ stated that when one is dealing with advertisements and circulars, unless they indeed come from manufacturers, there is business sense in their being construed as invitations to treat and not offers for sale. In a very different context Lord Herschell in Grainger v Gough (Surveyor of Taxes) [1896] AC 325, said this in dealing with a price list: The transmission of such a price list does not amount to an offer to supply an unlimited quantity of the wine described at the price named, so that as soon as an order is given there is a binding contract to supply that quantity. If it were so, the merchant might find himself involved in any number of contractual obligations to supply wine of a particular description which he would be quite unable to carry out, his stock of wine of that description being necessarily limited. Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co (1893) An advert was placed for smoke balls to prevent influenza. The advert offered to pay  £100 if anyone contracted influenza after using the ball. The company deposited  £1,000 with the Alliance Bank to show their sincerity in the matter. The plaintiff bought one of the balls but contracted influenza. It was held that she was entitled to recover the  £100. The Court of Appeal held that: (a) the deposit of money showed an intention to be bound, therefore the advert was an offer; (b) it was possible to make an offer to the world at large, which is accepted by anyone who buys a smokeball; (c) the offer of protection would cover the period of use; and (d) the buying and using of the smokeball amounted to acceptance. Harvey v Facey (1893) The plaintiffs sent a telegram to the defendant, Will you sell Bumper Hall Pen? Telegraph lowest cash price. The defendants reply was Lowest price  £900. The plaintiffs telegraphed We agree to buy †¦ for  £900 asked by you. It was held by the Privy Council that the defendants telegram was not an offer but simply an indication of the minimum price the defendants would want, if they decided to sell. The plaintiffs second telegram could not be an acceptance. Gibson v MCC (1979) The council sent to tenants details of a scheme for the sale of council houses. The plaintiff immediately replied, paying the  £3 administration fee. The council replied: The corporation may be prepared to sell the house to you at the purchase price of  £2,725 less 20 per cent.  £2,180 (freehold). The letter gave details about a mortgage and went on This letter should not be regarded as a firm offer of a mortgage. If you would like to make a formal application to buy your council house, please complete the enclosed application form and return it to me as soon as possible. G filled in and returned the form. Labour took control of the council from the Conservatives and instructed their officers not to sell council houses unless they were legally bound to do so. The council declined to sell to G. In the House of Lords, Lord Diplock stated that words italicised seem to make it quite impossible to construe this letter as a contractual offer capable of being converted into a legally enforceable open contract for the sale of land by Gs written acceptance of it. It was a letter setting out the financial terms on which it may be the council would be prepared to consider a sale and purchase in due course. Harvela v Royal Trust (1985) Royal Trust invited offers by sealed tender for shares in a company and undertook to accept the highest offer. Harvela bid $2,175,000 and Sir Leonard Outerbridge bid $2,100,000 or $100,000 in excess of any other offer. Royal Trust accepted Sir Leonards offer. The trial judge gave judgment for Harvela. In the House of Lords, Lord Templeman stated: To constitute a fixed bidding sale all that was necessary was that the vendors should invite confidential offers and should undertake to accept the highest offer. Such was the form of the invitation. It follows that the invitation upon its true construction created a fixed bidding sale and that Sir Leonard was not entitled to submit and the vendors were not entitled to accept a referential bid. Blackpool Aero Club v Blackpool Borough Council (1990) BBC invited tenders to operate an airport, to be submitted by noon on a fixed date. The plaintiffs tender was delivered by hand and put in the Town Hall letter box at 11am. However, the tender was recorded as having been received late and was not considered. The club sued for breach of an alleged warranty that a tender received by the deadline would be considered. The judge awarded damages for breach of contract and negligence. The councils appeal was dismissed by the Court of Appeal. ACCEPTANCE Brogden v MRC (1877) B supplied coal to MRC for many years without an agreement. MRC sent a draft agreement to B who filled in the name of an arbitrator, signed it and returned it to MRCs agent who put it in his desk. Coal was ordered and supplied in accordance with the agreement but after a dispute arose B said there was no binding agreement. It was held that Bs returning of the amended document was not an acceptance but a counter-offer which could be regarded as accepted either when MRC ordered coal or when B actually supplied. By their conduct the parties had indicated their approval of the agreement.

The History Of Psychology and Philosophy

The History Of Psychology and Philosophy Throughout the course of history, psychology has taken shape and formed into a field of science that is essential in modern times. Psychologys origins are deeply rooted in the field of philosophy, dating back to the ancient Greeks with such recognizable names as Aristotle and Plato, who began contemplating the causes of human behavior before even physiology and anatomy would connect the brain to behavior. Many philosophers have attempted to explain the basis for our behavior, but few have been influential and ingenious enough to have not only changed the face of psychology, but lead it into a new direction and devise theories still considered germane today. With the growing popularity of psychology in the field of philosophy, it was only a matter of time before psychology captured the interest of academics with a more scientific approach to determining and explaining the causes for human behavior. Following on the footsteps of Wilhelm Wundt and William James, the founding fathers of modern psychology, many scientists clamored to disprove current theories. As centuries have passed, and our knowledge and technology continues to advance, few philosophers and scientists have been so close to the mark with their theories to have influenced the field so greatly and still remain a vital part of our research, experiments, and theories today. John Locke, a 17th century English philosopher, and Charles Darwin, a 19th century naturalist and scientist are two men who fall into that category. John Lockes theories on how we gain knowledge were a turning point in child psychology in a time where children were meant to be seen and not heard. His beliefs still have validity today where the argument of nature vs. nurture comes into play. Charles Darwin catapulted functionalism to the head of the line in the field of psychology and opened up psychology to every field of research and data collection where human behavior is concerned. Darwins theory of evolution is still a major focus in many fields of psychology and was one of the most important developm ents, to this date, in the field of psychology. PHILOSOPHY John Locke was one of many philosophers of his time who believed that knowledge was gained through experience, and is often identified as the first of the great English empiricists. This title is often bestowed upon him due to his book, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, in which one of his most substantial goals was to determine the limits of human understanding. While Lockes most important lifes work was in the political arena, he put the same ideas to work in the field of psychology. Lockes disdain for authority lead him to extend his beliefs beyond politics; he wanted people to use reason to search for truth rather than simply accepting the opinion of authorities, or hinge their beliefs on superstition. This is how he approached his study of cognitive functioning. Locke did not agree with Descartes theory that knowledge can be innate, knowledge that we have gained without having experience and developed out of our consciousness. This is where his political ideas and his philosophical ideas crossed paths. It was Lockes belief that we are obligated to acquire knowledge and not just accept what we are told; knowledge is not innate, our mind gains simple information and builds complex ideas. Locke subscribed to the same basic idea that as Aristotle had, hundreds of years earlier, that the mind is a blank slate, or tabula rasa, when we are born. He applied this concept to children, which was quite radical for that time. Locke argued that children are not innately bad, they are born with this blank slate, and their experiences are substantial in deciding their characteristics as adults. He believed that children developed bad thinking habits and in order to dissuade this, children needed to be taught to base their beliefs on strong, fact based notio ns rather than simply believing what is meant to be understood as fact. This idea of a blank slate, is still argued by psychologists today. This is the same as the nature vs. nurture theory. Locke simply believed that everything is nurture, and who we become is based upon our environment and what we experience. He urged parents to spend time with their children, and guide them to help them develop into honorable members of society. While we now know, based upon years of research and study, that heredity and genetics are part of what decides our fate as we develop into adulthood, experience is highly implemental to our emotional and social development. Lockes argument was based upon two different types of experience, sensation and reflection. Sensation is based upon external experiences such as color, sound, and motion and reflection is based upon internal experiences, which cause the mind to reflect upon these sensations we have experienced and form thoughts and ideas, building our knowledge. This is where we collect our simple ideas, which then build and grow into complex ideas. Sensation helps us to form simple, very basic ideas. Reflection of those sensations causes us to add those stored simple ideas together to form a complex idea, thereby adding to our knowledge base. The notion of combining or compounding ideas and the reverse notion of analyzing them marks the beginning of the mental -chemistry approach to the problem of association. (Schultz Schultz, 2008 2007 Pg. 41) Association is, simply put, learning. SCIENCE Charles Darwin is probably one of the most renowned scientists who developed one of the most debated theories in history, the Theory of Evolution. Darwins ideas started formulating while he acted as the naturalist on a five-year voyage on the HMS Beagle. While aboard the Beagle, Darwin kept meticulous notes of his observations, and collected countless biologic and geologic specimens that were sent back to England. From these notes and specimens, Darwin penned three books on South American geology, published numerous scientific papers on zoology, and began his notebook on the transmutation of species. After his return, Darwin began communicating with breeders, zookeepers, naturalists, and gardeners to collect facts and gather evidence to support his theory of evolution. Two years later, Darwin became entranced by a two-year-old orangutan named Jenny, on display at the London Zoo. He was so taken by Jenny that he returned several times to observe and interact with her, until she died from an illness after only two years in captivity. Darwins reaction was that of profound astonishment evident in his notebook: Let man visit Orangoutang in domestication, see its intelligenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and then let him boast of his proud pre-eminenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Man in his arrogance thinks himself a great work, worthy the interposition of a diety. More humble, and I believe true, to consider him created from animals (as cited in Schultz, Schultz 2008 2007, Pg. 125). Darwin was not the first scientist to broach the subject of evolution. Ancient Greek philosophers argued the evolution of all life forms from air and water. A century before Darwin was born, German philosopher Immanuel Kant had a theory that closely resembled Darwins. He surmised that all life forms came from one single ancestor, and lower life forms may have adapted and evolved as needed for survival. Erasmus Darwin, Charless grandfather, also wrote of the relationship of all forms of life. While evolution was not necessarily a new or original concept, but the evidence and data Darwin collected, accompanied by his Origin of Species, was enough to start the chain of events that changed the direction of psychology. From Darwins theory of evolution came a deepening interest in studying the similarities of mental processes between humans and animals, prompting the field of comparative psychology, the study of animal behavior. Comparative psychology elicited the works of behaviorists Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, both of whom were highly influential in launching the behaviorist movement. Darwins theory of natural selection lead psychologists to delve deeper into researching individual differences amongst people in an attempt to find out why some thrived while others barely rise above average. Alfred Binets intelligence tests were developed while the focus on individual differences was burgeoning, as intelligence is a major focus for studying differences between individuals. Evolutionary psychology was obviously, spawned by Darwins theory. Evolutionary psychology is a field of cognitive psychology that is dedicated to explaining the causes of human behavior based upon adaptation and natural selecti on. Darwins theory of evolution took the spotlight off structuralism, and shined it directly at functionalism. The structuralism theories and works of Wundt and Titchener were not answering the questions that the psychologists of the time wanted answered. This switch to functionalism, catapulted by Darwin, sparked a desire to apply psychology to everyday life and the issues people face and of how adapt and function in different environments. CONCLUSION Rene Descartes, a 17th century French philosopher and mathematician brought about a spreading desire to explain the mind-body problem. This was the beginning of modern psychology. What followed was a stream of philosophers formulating theories and scientists who helped to make psychology and specific field of science. Many of the theories of the founding fathers of psychology, whether philosopher, scientist, physiologist, purveyor of structuralism or functionalism, are outdated and have been proven to be highly inaccurate, or completely without validity. Few theories have been able to stand the test of time, regardless of their influence and contributions to the field. John Lockes theories were the basis for a completely different view of child psychology and still hold validity today. While Locke was not completely correct with his idea of tabula rasa, starting life with a blank slate, the notion that our experiences shape who we become and are highly influential to our development is still a valid argument. Nature vs. nurture is one of the most valid theories in psychology today, and Lockes theory is derived from the nurture side. Charles Darwin did not start the concept of evolution, the theory had been circulating for centuries before he even cracked open his first notebook. However, his theories of evolution and natural selection set the tone for studies and research that continues to thrive. His theory of natural selection is valid in that we are constantly adapting and changing as our environment and circumstances change. Darwins theory came from every area of study from geology to zoology, and biology to animal husbandry. Those avenues of information and the combining of knowledge from different fields and areas of science are still open to us and have been extremely beneficial in continuing to broaden our efforts to explain the behavior of our fellow human beings. Darwins theory highlighted the importance of studying individuals, and continues with behavior analysts and experimental psychologists worldwide. With the thoroughness and painstakingly detailed documentation and supporting evidence Darwin col lected it would be difficult to pinpoint much that is not valid today from a psychological standpoint. The only true debates where Darwins theories are concerned seem to stem from religion circles and creationists, which has little bearing on the attempt to explain human behavior. Reference Page Schultz, Duane P. Schultz, Sydney E., (2008, 2007), History of Psychology PS210, Cengage Learning: Mason, OH. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/darwinism/

Pharmacist Role In Developing Countries Health And Social Care Essay

Pharmacist Role In Developing Countries Health And Social Care Essay Introduction: Since last decades despite tremendous advancements in medical technology, the global health status needs to be revamped. The commitment of the majority of World Health Organization (WHO) member countries to the Declaration of Alma-Ata in 1978 advocates the concept of health for all. Unfortunately the fundamental doctrine of the declaration is failed to be reaffirmed by some of the developing countries.1 The developing nations harbor 80% of the worlds population and it been estimated that 2.7 billion people living in this part of the world thrive on less than US$2 a day.2,3,4 This, in turn, contributed to lack of access to efficient healthcare services among these populations. Moreover, in most of these developing countries, the deliveries of effective healthcare services are compromised due to incompetent and non-qualified healthcare providers. Apart from the need to understand the pathophysiology of disease and their treatment modalities, healthcare providers necessitate to comprehend the local environment or/and culture in order to achieve the desired therapeutic outcomes. Therefore, the reorientation and reconstruction of healthcare professionals education and training to generate socially motivated healthcare providers is the need of time. Pharmacist role in developing countries: In the beginning of the 6th century BC, humans started a several-centuries-process of compiling pharmacological knowledge that contributed towards public health.5 The scope of pharmacy practice encompasses areas of compounding and dispensing medications, services related to patient care including clinical services, reviewing medications for safety and efficacy, and providing drug information. Generally, the existing medical education system produces professionals which have a tendency towards clinical practice or either specialization. Preference is more towards treatment rather than prophylaxis. Moreover, professional training emphasized on subject-centered curriculum linked with high technology and therefore, trainees come in contact with patients usually at the end of the training. As a result, the role of pharmacists in healthcare system is generally bleak, but perhaps more so in developing and transitional economies. Still in some places pharmacists are increasingly assuming their role as health care workers. Their services include more patient-oriented, administrative and public health functions. This successful transition in pharmacy practice is the result of the implementation of educational programs aimed at making them responsive to the needs of the majority of the population6. In the context of developing countries, pharmacy profession only captured the imagination of only a small segment of the population as a vibrant healthcare profession. For instance, although HIV/AIDS is rampantly prevalent in many developing countries in Asia, Africa and South America, still pharmacist in these countries is underutilized as healthcare workforce in prophylactic campaigns. Furthermore, issues of public health dimensions that need collective action via intensive efforts of pharmacists and other healthcare team members are nearly non-existent in developing countries. This might be due to the fact that both public and other healthcare practitioners perceived that pharmacists are not well positioned to take such an active role in public health initiatives that are generally considered to be the domains of doctors and nurses preferably7. Lately, with the tremendous evolution of pharmacy practice in developed nations such as the UK, Australia and US, it thus becomes evident that pharmacists can contribute more towards Health for All agenda. Furthermore, there has been a great move by health policy makers and educators in developing skills and attitudes which are necessary to meet the healthcare needs of the majority of the people. This change has also influenced many developing countries to follow the trend. Therefore, within the last two decades extensive transitions had been observed in pharmacy curricula globally, mainly with the incorporation of social and behavioral sciences at many pharmacy schools Although a complete discussion linking social sciences with pharmacy is not possible in a single document, we try to provide a brief historical background on social pharmacy and pharmacy practice as well as the importance of social sciences in health. In the current document the authors discuss few case studies from developed countries which establish the relevant link of social and behavioral sciences to pharmacy curricula and, therefore, the importance of social sciences in pharmacy curriculum can thus be ascertained. The authors will also enumerate the achievements of the Universiti Sains Malaysia in incorporating social pharmacy subjects in undergraduate pharmacy education. Recent history of social sciences and pharmacy education: Since the early 1980s, efforts were undertaken to find out which areas of pharmacy practice can greatly contribute in pharmacy training. Among many recommendations, an independent committee of inquiry established under the aegis of the Nuffield Foundation advocated that social and behavioral science should be incorporated into the pharmacy undergraduate curriculum. Defined as the scientific study of human behavior, behavioral science is often associated with disciplines which deal with people and society including psychology, sociology and anthropology. Sociology studies an individuals actions as a social phenomenon, whereas behavior is explained and shaped by the society in which we evolve; reason for which, sociologists prefer to use the term social action in place of behavior. Behavioral science also includes social psychology and interpersonal communication. According to Morrall,8 the discipline of sociology demystifies the nature of health and illness, determines the social causes of disease and death, exposes power-factors and ethical dilemmas in the production of health care, and either directly or indirectly helps to create a discerning practitioner capable of more focused and competent decision making. Such a sociologically informed approach to health care is basically needed by all health workers including pharmacists. Due to this importance, institutions such as the schools of pharmacy and the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain suggested that aspects of sociology should be incorporated into the pharmacy undergr aduate curriculum for adequately preparing pharmacy students for their future practice. In a related opinion, the Royal Pharmaceutical Societys Education Committee advocated that all schools of pharmacy in their undergraduate programs should include teaching on the social science aspects of pharmacy.9 Why sociology for pharmacists? : Inadequacies and disparities in health care systems are still a major threat to global public health. In response to this, the last decades had witnessed an increasing number of changes in the activities of pharmacists. In primary care activities compounding and formulation of medicines are not practiced anymore. As technological progresses have made the dispensing of medicines a more routine task, how much time pharmacists spend on this activity is questioned. In addition, the number of highly effective proprietary medicines available for sale from a pharmacy, which were previously only available on prescription, has increased and thus expected to increase still further. As such, it is predicted that in near future pharmacists will be able to prescribe medicines as supplementary prescribers in developing countries. These facts have led pharmacists to re-evaluate their roles, and to promote themselves as health professionals as they must consider them selves as experts in medicines capable to take the lead of patients health status and the outcomes of different therapeutic regimen. In secondary care, clinical and ward pharmacy have become important concepts, with pharmacists increasingly being integrated into the health care teams alongside acquiring specializations i.e. in drug information, oncology, paediatrics and radiopharmacy. The contribution of social science to pharmacy practice: Pharmacy services in developing countries could make a greater contribution to health care. Steps to ensure that pharmacy education provides students with the knowledge and skills to contribute to public health priorities of their local populations are increasingly seen as an important goal of pharmacy education. Clearly, in developing their professional skills in social and clinical pharmacy, students need to appreciate that patients will have their own beliefs, views, and perspectives about their health and use of medicines which might be important determinants of the success of any health promotion activities. These activities include development effective counseling and communication skills, enhancing medication compliance, improving the understanding of ones disease, encouraging patients to seek professional care, assisting patients in making informed decision, and enhancing pharmacy professionalism and leadership qualitie s. Global Case Studies Developed Countries In 1975, the study commission on pharmacy identified the need to incorporate the behavioral and social sciences in pharmacy alongside clinical practice. In the same year, the Council on Pharmaceutical Education included pharmacy administration, social and behavioral sciences in their indicative curriculum. As per 2004, the American Association of College of pharmacy10 incorporates many social and behavioral topics as required outcomes of pharmacy programs in the USA. In UK, the Nuffield Committee of inquiry into pharmacy decided behavioral sciences to be incorporated into undergraduate pharmacy curriculum in 1986. To date, social pharmacy is now taught in all schools of pharmacy and forms part of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society ¢s indicative curriculum. A number of Northern and Eastern European countries introduced social pharmacy into their curricula in the mid-1970 ¢s11. In Sweden, courses were taught since 1957, dealing with social pharmacy and low/regulations in pharmacy which in 1970 transformed to social pharmacy. In Denmark, the first social pharmacy course was introduced in 1972-73 and by 1980 the course appeared in the course catalogue as social pharmacy with social science. In 1992, a chair in social pharmacy was established at Royal Danish School of Pharmacy. In Belgium, the concept of communication skills was introduced into the pharmacy fourth year students. A variety of methods that are used to assess pharmacy practice students , including a 6-month pharmacy internship, in which students are assessed by a preceptors report; a week-long workshop on communication and pharmacotherapy; a multiple choice exam on pharmacotherapy; and an open book oral exam. In the academic year 2000-01, the strongest correlations were between internship and oral exam performance. This trend continued in 2001-02, in addition to multiple choice exam correlating with both oral and internship performance. Developing Countries In the scenario of developing countries the contribution of pharmacy education in Malaysia is worth mentioning. The Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) is the first public university to offer a Bachelors degree in Pharmacy in Malaysia since 1972. To date, it has produced more than 2,000 pharmacy graduates which serve as local pharmacy workforce. The School of Pharmaceutical Sciences has a multi-disciplinary pharmacy curriculum designed to provide holistic training to  prepare students for life-long learning, and to equip them with broad scientific knowledge and essential skills. The integrated pharmacy program consists of basic science and pharmaceutical science subjects in the first two years of study, and progresses towards patient care and clinical pharmacy. In the third and fourth years, the students professional skills are linked to an advanced clinical and pharmacy practice. Hence the curriculum inculcates a high standard of pharmacy training in practical knowledge and profession al skills. The 4-year program covers 6 disciplines of study, namely Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Physiology, Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacy and Social and Administrative Pharmacy. Social and Administrative Pharmacy subjects were first incorporated in the curriculum in 1992-93 academic sessions and has been designed to prepare students for responsible leadership positions in academia, industry or public service.12 Hence this course equips the students for careers in governmental agencies, pharmaceutical firms, community pharmacies, universities, professional bodies and health insurance companies, all of which have a direct and indirect impact on the social fabric of the country. Students learn to give optimum services to the patients, as well as to make them aware about the prevention and cure of diseases. The Discipline of Social and Administrative Pharmacy (DSAP) at USM is committed to promote research in drug use problems in developing countries.13 At present more than fifty postgraduate students from more than ten developing countries are being guided by the faculty members in carrying out drug-related research in their countries as well as in Malaysia. The priority areas of research of DSAP are multidisciplinary and include pharmacoeconomics, pharmacoepidemiology/ pharmacovigilance, socio-behavioral aspects of health and pharmacy, pharmaceutical care, outcomes research, quality of life assessment, decision analysis, and pharmaceutical management and marketing. Additional domains of research include pharmaceutical public policy, pharmaceutical education, pharmacoinformatics and pharmaceutical anthropology. Another striking example is the case of Ghana, where pharmacists are often the most easily accessible health professionals to give consultation on health problems14. The incorporation of a landmark health promotional module in pharmacy course in Kumasi, Ghana comprises of both classroom activity as well as outdoor field work. This field work component enables the student to prepare health promotional materials by visiting and observing their local population and thus identify and explore their local compromised resources. This module thus serves to prepare Challenges for social pharmacy: A good example of how social pharmacy faces challenges can be gained from the recent review by Puspitasari et al 15 , which focused on counseling given to patients who purchase prescription medicines from community pharmacies. Their data showed that the nature of researchers relationships with the profession, measures to improve community pharmacy practices, the importance of learning from other disciplines, and the need to internationalize our discipline challenge social pharmacy research works. In addressing the role of a pharmacy, some authors16, 17 have previously suggested that pharmacists should have an increasing role in patient care and that patient counseling is one of the cornerstones of this new role. The very wide variation in counseling rates found by Puspitasari and the colleagues (8 to 80% of patients received verbal counseling) suggests that this new role is carried out more in some settings than others. Social pharmacy research had pla yed and still continues to play an important role in documenting this practice variation. Based on these reports, one of the major challenges is how to improve the practice of those settings and practitioners who are currently lagging behind. Clearly, researchers dealing with social pharmacy and pharmacy practice tread a delicate line. In order to accomplish the research findings of social pharmacy into practice the relationship of the social pharmacist with the practitioners must be close and positive enough that practitioners must listen to and involve themselves in the implementation of findings in the hope of improvements in pharmacy practice. In addition, researchers need to be independent enough so that they can identify the need for improvement, and advocate in the interest of public health. Non-pharmacists social pharmacy researchers face an additional set of challenges and pressures which mainly include their own recognition within social pharmacy.18 As pointed out by Puspitasari et al,15 studies on improvements in community pharmacy practice are urgently needed. Previous studies highlighted that motivated, innovative pharmacists can provide effective secondary services, which are undoubtedly important; 19, 20 however, interventional research studies in order to assess or improve the performance of the present pharmacist or pharmacy assistants are the need of time. Substantial information on how to improve present pharmacy practice exists in other professions also, and this can be instrumental in bringing changes in social pharmacy. For instance, the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organization of Care Review Group have a long-term experience in dealing with practice improvement.21,22 Overall, the major outcome of these works is the passive dissemination of information, i.e. written materials and lectures are not effective in changing practice. However, reminders and interactive educational meetings are effective strategies as they promote discussion and educational outreach. Multifaceted interventions tend to be more effective than single ones. Reviews of evidence on specific issues, such as interventions aimed at improving the use of antimicrobials have produced similar findings.23 Strategies for improving practice are a key concern in most health professions such as pharmacy, medicine, nursing, but are dealt with separately in each profession. Although differences may exist between professions and countries, practice researchers in each discipline can learn considerably by interacting with each other. Social pharmacy research is done in few developed countries: USA, UK, the Netherlands, Finland, Australia, and Canada. According to Ryan et al,11 social pharmacy is taught in seventeen countries those above plus four more Scandinavian countries, more European countries, New Zealand, and very few countries in the developing world. Thus the dissemination of social pharmacy research still remains a major challenge, especially in developing countries where there are documented problems in the purchase, distribution, and use of medicines. To overcome these problems, one possibility would be to establish strategic alliances with countries already working in these areas or with organizations such as the World Health Organization and Management Sciences for Health (www.msh.org) that have expertise, experience, and commitment to improve access to and use of medicines in developing countries. Conclusion: Social pharmacy program can be approached globally through various course types and formats. These courses make the students expose and explore societal concerns and health inequalities in their respective resource-deficient settings. Practical application of some components makes the student aware of the impact of sociodemographic on health and illness and inculcates sound understanding of the culture as well as social and moral obligations towards society in general and individual in particular. With regard to Universiti Sains Malaysia, constructive discussion to incorporate social-behavioral concepts and principles into other courses throughout the pharmacy curriculum can make the future prospects bright for social pharmacy. Students should be taught social pharmacy concepts and principles in every subject as pharmacoeconomics, pharmacoepidemiology, socio-behavioral aspects of health and ethical issues could and should be discussed during lectures and prior to clinical rotations. This shift in pharmacy practice from a product- to an information- and patient-based orientation affects patient knowledge, and increases liability and health care costs, which continue to place pharmacists in a position of great responsibility.

Kraft Foods, High Performance Work Systems (HPWS) Essay -- Case Study

In 1995, Kraft was created through the reorganization and merger of J. L. Kraft, Oscar Meyer, and C. W. Post into one operating company. For the reorganization the Operations Division chose to use the High Performance Work Systems (HPWS) change management tool because they believed it was the best way to include all of the necessary elements that would contribute to the vision of undisputed leadership. They also liked the HPWS tool because of its strict structure and because it was a good platform to create and communicate a consistent management philosophy. HPWS allowed them to monitor all of their plants, new and old, for efficiency and effectiveness of the reorganization. Strengths of the Change Intervention Kraft Foods, Inc. approached their change initiative by researching and testing before implementing. The High Performance Work Systems (HPWS) was first implemented into three start-up plants. The HPWS method was successful and adopted by the new plants. HPWS helps determine factors such as total inventory, cost of production, and measurement of productivity. Once the HPWS method proved to be successful it was then implemented into the existing plants to help gain control of costs, waste, and productivity. Kraft was able to provide quality examples to the existing plants of how this method improved productivity and profits. Employees were able to embrace the change plan easier when they could actually see the possible improvements. Kraft had a bonus because the employees were able to see the method working in similar situations, which helped build trust and acceptance in the change plan. This method also empowered the employees giving them an opportunity to increase their skill levels and an opportuni... ...ecause of the communication tools provided through HPWS. â€Å"By consistently applying the tools across Operations, Kraft was assured that people and work systems were aligned† (Carter et al, p.37). In fact, most of their Champions became so adept at HPWS that they are now internal consultants for the company. That level of knowledge, commitment, and motivation among their people will surely allow Kraft to sustain momentum and realize future success. References Bridges, W. (2009). Managing Transitions: Making the Most of Change. Philadelphia, PA: Da Capo Press. Carter, L., Ulrich, D., & Goldsmith, M. (2005). Best Practices in Leadership Development and Organization Change: How the Best Companies Ensure Meaningful Change and Sustainable Leadership. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Kotter, J. P. (1996). Leading Change . Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

HISTORY AND ORIGINATORS OF KEYBOARD Essays -- essays research papers

HISTORY AND ORIGINATORS OF KEYBOARD BAROQUE PERIOD Harpsichord (Italian cembalo; French clavecin), stringed keyboard instrument in which the strings are plucked to produce sound. It was developed in Europe in the 14th or 15th century and was widely used from the 16th to the early 19th century, when it was superseded by the piano. In the 20th century the harpsichord was revived for performance of music of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, as well as for new compositions. The incisive sound quality of the plucked metal strings adds clarity to melodic lines. The harpsichord is particularly effective in performing contrapuntal music—that is, music that consists of two or more melodies played at the same time, such as that of the German composer Johann Sebastian Bach. Construction and Mechanism The harpsichord usually has a wing-shaped body, or case, like a grand piano; however, its proportions are narrower and longer, and the case and its inner bracing are normally lighter. Harpsichords have also been built in other shapes. Thes e include the virginal, or virginals, a small oblong instrument; the spinet, a small polygonal harpsichord; and the less common clavicytherium, an upright harpsichord. From the 16th to 19th century the terms spinet and virginal were often used interchangeably, and in England during that era any harpsichord was called a virginal. Harpsichords of any shape have the same plucking mechanism. For each string a small piece of material, or plectrum, is set in a thin slip of wood, or â€Å"jack,† which rests internally on the far end of the key. When the front of the key is depressed, the far end rises, and the plectrum plucks the string. The jack is pivoted so that, when the key returns to rest position, the plectrum slides by without striking the string. Since the volume and tone of the sound produced by the plucking mechanism remain constant regardless of the forcefulness of the keystroke, various methods have been developed to alter the harpsichord's sound. Many harpsichords have two strings for each key, with a row of jacks for each set of strings. Stops, or registers, allow the player to move unwanted sets of jacks slightly out of reach of the strings, thus making possible different volumes and combinations of tone colors. One set of strings may sound an octave above normal pitch. Some 18th-century German harpsichords had a set of strings so... ...18th-century instruments, often incorporating the best of the 19th-century innovations. Electronic Organs Electronic and electric organs, developed in the 20th century, are not organs in the strict sense, for they do not produce sound by air vibrating in a pipe; rather, they are instruments in their own right. One kind, invented in 1935 by an American, Laurens Hammond, utilizes electrical circuits and amplifiers to produce and enlarge the sound. Another kind uses electronic devices such as vacuum tubes. Although such instruments are often designed to imitate the tone qualities of pipe organs, they are frequently criticized for a pinched or artificial-seeming sound. Electronic organs were widely used in the rock bands of the 1960s and after. In such bands, which use extensive electrical sound amplification and manipulation, the distinctive qualities of electronic-organ sound are exploited for their own sake. Reed Organs Keyboard instruments in which the wind supply is directed tow ard free metal reeds like those of a harmonica or accordion are called reed organs. They include the melodeon, developed in the United States about 1825, and the harmonium, developed in Germany about 1810.

Frankenstein and Of Mice and men Frankenstein and Of Mice And Men are :: English Literature

Frankenstein and Of Mice and men Frankenstein and Of Mice And Men are different in almost every way. They are written in different times, by different classes Frankenstein and Of Mice and men Frankenstein and Of Mice And Men are different in almost every way. They are written in different times, by different classes of people and in different areas of the world where life is dissimilar to the extreme. The primary characters are nothing like each other, and the books are written in contrasting styles. Frankenstein is about a scientist who inadvertently creates a monster in his pursuits of the reanimation of deceased creatures. It is concerned with the life of the scientist and his anguish when the creature that he has made turns evil, and homicidal. Of Mice And Men is about two migrant ranch worker's quest to actualise the 'American Dream' whilst trying to avoid tribulation on the ranch where they are earning their living. However,there are some similar themes in the two novels, for example, the loneliness ofthe primary characters, and the way society reacts to something that is considered 'atypical' by their standards. In this essay, Frankenstein and Of Mice And Men will be critically compared and contrasted. Themes in the novels will be taken into account, as well as the use of language and the social and historical background to the novels. This will be closed by a conclusion where the main points will be brought up again. Isolation is one of the most frequent occurrences in the two novels. In Of Mice And Men, Lennie is disassociated from the others, not because he wants to be, but because of his low intellect he is considered 'different' by the men on the ranch, and society. This is much like the situation of Frankenstein's monster. Because of his displeasing appearance, he is abhorred by society and forced to live away from it, secluded in forests and so on. '"Finding the door open, I entered. An old man sat in it, near a fire, over which he was preparing his breakfast. He turned on hearing a noise; and perceived me, shrieked loudly, and quitting the hut ran across the fields..."'. Other characters in Of Mice And Men, for example Crooks, are victims of this forced isolation. Crooks is a black man in a predominantly white area. Black people had been brought to America due to the Slave Trade, but even though it was abolished, black people were still seen as slaves, and below white Americans. '"'Cause I'm black. They play cards in there, but I can't play because I'm black. They say I stink."' Another character that is a target for this is Curley's wife.

Homosexuality in the Christian Church Essay

Homosexuality is defined as consistent fantasy, interest and arousal toward a person of the same sex. Disagreement exists about the explanation of homosexuality. On the other hand, evidence supports the fact that homosexuality has existed throughout the history of humankind and is not just a development of the 20th century. Early psychoanalytic theory concluded that homosexuality developed from conflicts derived from early developmental disturbances. Investigators more in recent times have explored neuroendocrine explanations as a cause of homosexual development. The results of these studies have been controversial. On the other hand, a lot of experts believe that sexual orientation, whether heterosexual or homosexual, is the consequence of a multifaceted interface flanked by anatomic and hormonal influences during fetal growth. As investigators attempt to reply the question of etiology, others have worked to further define the incidence of homosexuality. Cognitive and communal expansion throughout adolescence is an intricate progression characterized by the acquisition of a sense of self-separate from family, a sexual independence, the capacity for intimacy and the ability to be autonomous. (The Christian Science Monitor) For those young people who grow a homosexual orientation in a society based on heterosexuality, the changeover all the way through adolescence is expanded and expressed to some extent in a different way throughout the stage of acquiring a sexual uniqueness. Interviews with gay and lesbian youth specify a general pattern in which an adolescent accepts his or her own homosexuality. It is the sexual orientation toward people of the same sex. Homosexuality contrasts with heterosexuality, sexual orientation toward people of the opposite sex. People with a sexual orientation toward members of both sexes are called bisexuals. Female homosexuals are often called lesbians. In modern years, the word gay has been applied to both homosexual men and women. Homosexuality appears in almost all societal contexts within unlike community settings, socioeconomic levels, and cultural and dutiful groups. The number of homosexuals in the inhabitants is not easy to find out, and dependable data do not subsist. Nevertheless, current estimates propose that the term homosexual may relate to 2 to 4 percent of men. Estimates for lesbians are lesser. Not all people who slot in homosexual commotion essentially classify themselves as homosexual. (Zgourides, G. ) The move toward greater unity among Protestant denominations has continued in the 21st century; however, within denominations there is still conflict between conservatives and moderates or liberals. One for the most part divisive issue is homosexuality. Denominations debate whether to ordain practicing homosexuals and whether to bar clergy from performing same-sex marriage ceremonies. Some churches condemn all homosexual activity, while others refuse to do so. Consequently, according to the same religious law that many of them use when religiously citing the gay and lesbian community, countless, reputable Christian leaders today, especially within African America, are in a word adulterers. However, you will not readily read of religious leaders publicly denouncing the social and spiritual validity of their fellow divorced clergy who have married more than once, like you will their `cry loud and spare not’ public cries relating to gay and lesbians desiring the equal choice and right to marry only once. There exists no evidence that suggests Jesus ever discussed same-sex anything, publicly or privately, during his ministry. However, Christ, the bedrock of modern-day Christianity, did publicly condemn religious leaders of his age for granting bills of divorcement. However, wading through all the hype in the media these days one might just conclude the opposite. (Knutson, D. C. ) It is considered an act of unconditional grace to say that the immeasurable, unmerited grace available from God stops only at the sin of adultery. Does God’s amazing grace cover only those sins of Old Testament law that are socially comfortable by today’s standards? Let me put it another way: Is divorce (absent of unfaithfulness) a sin? Many Christians might respond, and there is plenty of scripture to back that up. Then will God consider the bed of that remarried person defiled? Most would probably respond, No, absolutely not, because of the New Testament law of grace, and there is plenty of scripture to support this. Christian churches historically have discriminated, excluded, and persecuted homosexuals on the basis of their sexuality. The emergence of new social attitudes and modernization has contributed to the easing of such taboos. However, the role of the church to defend minorities has led to serious conflicts between the gay community and the church’s prohibition of homosexuality. Within the Christian churches, homosexually oriented people have been excluded, marginalized and persecuted in the great majority of cases. The relatively few exceptions, which are known, are seldom taken into account. John Boswell, from whom the most important studies in this area have come, has found examples of liturgical forms for the union of same-sex partners from the churches of Asia Minor. Nevertheless, it must be said in general that in societies, which have morally proscribed homosexual relations, treated them as taboo or legally forbidden them, the sexual ethic upheld by the churches has not represented a divergent position. (Bauserman, R. ) New reflection by the churches in this area began only under the influence of a shift in social attitudes towards sexuality. The processes of modernization and secularization were accompanied by a removal of sexuality from the realm of taboo and a new respect for the private sphere. Furthermore, since the end of the 19th century modern sexual research has brought new insights into how the sexual identity of persons is formed. In addition, constitutional provisions guaranteeing the rule of law have made it possible for the first time for homosexual people to organize and struggle publicly for the abolition of discriminatory laws and regulations. For the most part the churches have supported the decriminalization of homosexuality only hesitantly. Nor was this new orientation primarily the consequence of new biblical insights or spiritual experiences; rather, the reconsideration was touched off by other factors. In the first place, personal encounter with gay or lesbian people, once they no longer had to conceal themselves but could begin to speak for themselves, was certainly important. As a rule, living alongside homosexual persons on the job, in the neighborhood, within the circle of friends or relatives leads to a reconsideration of traditional social or individual prejudices. A second factor was the exposure of individuals or groups in a good number of churches and congregations to the investigations and findings of modern empirical research on sexuality. However, this research is academically institutionalized (usually in connection with faculties of medicine) in only a few countries; and church declarations on sexual ethics draw explicitly on scientific sexological research only rarely and usually in passing. Finally, it should be noted that quite a few churches have accepted the decriminalization of homosexuality and the principle of non-discrimination against people because of sexual orientation through decisions by their competent governing bodies without however immediately reconsidering their own moral convictions and reservations on the issue. Churches time and again have a great deal of freedom for autonomous structuring of their ordinances and especially their offices. They should work at abolishing any remaining discrimination because of individual sexual orientation in the right to hold office and accept homosexual persons as office-bearers of course, as in the case of all office-bearers, according to the measure of their suitability for the growth of the community. (Boswell, J)