Cases on Contract Essay Example for Free

Cases on Contract Essay The defendant made the highest bid for the plaintiffs goods at an auction sale, but he withdrew his bid before the fall of the auctioneers hammer. It was held that the defendant was not bound to purchase the goods. His bid amounted to an offer which he was entitled to withdraw at any time before the auctioneer signified acceptance by knocking down the hammer. Note: The common law rule laid down in this case has now been codified in s57(2) Sale of Goods Act 1979. Fisher v Bell (1960) A shopkeeper displayed a flick knife with a price tag in the window. The Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959 made it an offence to offer for sale a flick knife. The shopkeeper was prosecuted in the magistrates court but the Justices declined to convict on the basis that the knife had not, in law, been offered for sale. This decision was upheld by the Queens Bench Divisional Court. Lord Parker CJ stated: It is perfectly clear that according to the ordinary law of contract the display of an article with a price on it in a shop window is merely an invitation to treat. It is in no sense an offer for sale the acceptance of which constitutes a contract. PSGB v Boots (1953) The defendants shop was adapted to the self-service system. The question for the Court of Appeal was whether the sales of certain drugs were effected by or under the supervision of a registered pharmacist. The question was answered in the affirmative. Somervell LJ stated that in the case of an ordinary shop, although goods are displayed and it is intended that customers should go and choose what they want, the contract is not completed until, the customer having indicated the articles which he needs, the shopkeeper, or someone on his behalf, accepts that offer. Then the contract is completed. Partridge v Crittenden (1968) It was an offence to offer for sale certain wild birds. The defendant had advertised in a periodical Quality Bramblefinch cocks, Bramblefinch hens, 25s each. His conviction was quashed by the High Court. Lord Parker CJ stated that when one is dealing with advertisements and circulars, unless they indeed come from manufacturers, there is business sense in their being construed as invitations to treat and not offers for sale. In a very different context Lord Herschell in Grainger v Gough (Surveyor of Taxes) [1896] AC 325, said this in dealing with a price list: The transmission of such a price list does not amount to an offer to supply an unlimited quantity of the wine described at the price named, so that as soon as an order is given there is a binding contract to supply that quantity. If it were so, the merchant might find himself involved in any number of contractual obligations to supply wine of a particular description which he would be quite unable to carry out, his stock of wine of that description being necessarily limited. Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co (1893) An advert was placed for smoke balls to prevent influenza. The advert offered to pay  £100 if anyone contracted influenza after using the ball. The company deposited  £1,000 with the Alliance Bank to show their sincerity in the matter. The plaintiff bought one of the balls but contracted influenza. It was held that she was entitled to recover the  £100. The Court of Appeal held that: (a) the deposit of money showed an intention to be bound, therefore the advert was an offer; (b) it was possible to make an offer to the world at large, which is accepted by anyone who buys a smokeball; (c) the offer of protection would cover the period of use; and (d) the buying and using of the smokeball amounted to acceptance. Harvey v Facey (1893) The plaintiffs sent a telegram to the defendant, Will you sell Bumper Hall Pen? Telegraph lowest cash price. The defendants reply was Lowest price  £900. The plaintiffs telegraphed We agree to buy †¦ for  £900 asked by you. It was held by the Privy Council that the defendants telegram was not an offer but simply an indication of the minimum price the defendants would want, if they decided to sell. The plaintiffs second telegram could not be an acceptance. Gibson v MCC (1979) The council sent to tenants details of a scheme for the sale of council houses. The plaintiff immediately replied, paying the  £3 administration fee. The council replied: The corporation may be prepared to sell the house to you at the purchase price of  £2,725 less 20 per cent.  £2,180 (freehold). The letter gave details about a mortgage and went on This letter should not be regarded as a firm offer of a mortgage. If you would like to make a formal application to buy your council house, please complete the enclosed application form and return it to me as soon as possible. G filled in and returned the form. Labour took control of the council from the Conservatives and instructed their officers not to sell council houses unless they were legally bound to do so. The council declined to sell to G. In the House of Lords, Lord Diplock stated that words italicised seem to make it quite impossible to construe this letter as a contractual offer capable of being converted into a legally enforceable open contract for the sale of land by Gs written acceptance of it. It was a letter setting out the financial terms on which it may be the council would be prepared to consider a sale and purchase in due course. Harvela v Royal Trust (1985) Royal Trust invited offers by sealed tender for shares in a company and undertook to accept the highest offer. Harvela bid $2,175,000 and Sir Leonard Outerbridge bid $2,100,000 or $100,000 in excess of any other offer. Royal Trust accepted Sir Leonards offer. The trial judge gave judgment for Harvela. In the House of Lords, Lord Templeman stated: To constitute a fixed bidding sale all that was necessary was that the vendors should invite confidential offers and should undertake to accept the highest offer. Such was the form of the invitation. It follows that the invitation upon its true construction created a fixed bidding sale and that Sir Leonard was not entitled to submit and the vendors were not entitled to accept a referential bid. Blackpool Aero Club v Blackpool Borough Council (1990) BBC invited tenders to operate an airport, to be submitted by noon on a fixed date. The plaintiffs tender was delivered by hand and put in the Town Hall letter box at 11am. However, the tender was recorded as having been received late and was not considered. The club sued for breach of an alleged warranty that a tender received by the deadline would be considered. The judge awarded damages for breach of contract and negligence. The councils appeal was dismissed by the Court of Appeal. ACCEPTANCE Brogden v MRC (1877) B supplied coal to MRC for many years without an agreement. MRC sent a draft agreement to B who filled in the name of an arbitrator, signed it and returned it to MRCs agent who put it in his desk. Coal was ordered and supplied in accordance with the agreement but after a dispute arose B said there was no binding agreement. It was held that Bs returning of the amended document was not an acceptance but a counter-offer which could be regarded as accepted either when MRC ordered coal or when B actually supplied. By their conduct the parties had indicated their approval of the agreement.

The History Of Psychology and Philosophy

The History Of Psychology and Philosophy Throughout the course of history, psychology has taken shape and formed into a field of science that is essential in modern times. Psychologys origins are deeply rooted in the field of philosophy, dating back to the ancient Greeks with such recognizable names as Aristotle and Plato, who began contemplating the causes of human behavior before even physiology and anatomy would connect the brain to behavior. Many philosophers have attempted to explain the basis for our behavior, but few have been influential and ingenious enough to have not only changed the face of psychology, but lead it into a new direction and devise theories still considered germane today. With the growing popularity of psychology in the field of philosophy, it was only a matter of time before psychology captured the interest of academics with a more scientific approach to determining and explaining the causes for human behavior. Following on the footsteps of Wilhelm Wundt and William James, the founding fathers of modern psychology, many scientists clamored to disprove current theories. As centuries have passed, and our knowledge and technology continues to advance, few philosophers and scientists have been so close to the mark with their theories to have influenced the field so greatly and still remain a vital part of our research, experiments, and theories today. John Locke, a 17th century English philosopher, and Charles Darwin, a 19th century naturalist and scientist are two men who fall into that category. John Lockes theories on how we gain knowledge were a turning point in child psychology in a time where children were meant to be seen and not heard. His beliefs still have validity today where the argument of nature vs. nurture comes into play. Charles Darwin catapulted functionalism to the head of the line in the field of psychology and opened up psychology to every field of research and data collection where human behavior is concerned. Darwins theory of evolution is still a major focus in many fields of psychology and was one of the most important developm ents, to this date, in the field of psychology. PHILOSOPHY John Locke was one of many philosophers of his time who believed that knowledge was gained through experience, and is often identified as the first of the great English empiricists. This title is often bestowed upon him due to his book, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, in which one of his most substantial goals was to determine the limits of human understanding. While Lockes most important lifes work was in the political arena, he put the same ideas to work in the field of psychology. Lockes disdain for authority lead him to extend his beliefs beyond politics; he wanted people to use reason to search for truth rather than simply accepting the opinion of authorities, or hinge their beliefs on superstition. This is how he approached his study of cognitive functioning. Locke did not agree with Descartes theory that knowledge can be innate, knowledge that we have gained without having experience and developed out of our consciousness. This is where his political ideas and his philosophical ideas crossed paths. It was Lockes belief that we are obligated to acquire knowledge and not just accept what we are told; knowledge is not innate, our mind gains simple information and builds complex ideas. Locke subscribed to the same basic idea that as Aristotle had, hundreds of years earlier, that the mind is a blank slate, or tabula rasa, when we are born. He applied this concept to children, which was quite radical for that time. Locke argued that children are not innately bad, they are born with this blank slate, and their experiences are substantial in deciding their characteristics as adults. He believed that children developed bad thinking habits and in order to dissuade this, children needed to be taught to base their beliefs on strong, fact based notio ns rather than simply believing what is meant to be understood as fact. This idea of a blank slate, is still argued by psychologists today. This is the same as the nature vs. nurture theory. Locke simply believed that everything is nurture, and who we become is based upon our environment and what we experience. He urged parents to spend time with their children, and guide them to help them develop into honorable members of society. While we now know, based upon years of research and study, that heredity and genetics are part of what decides our fate as we develop into adulthood, experience is highly implemental to our emotional and social development. Lockes argument was based upon two different types of experience, sensation and reflection. Sensation is based upon external experiences such as color, sound, and motion and reflection is based upon internal experiences, which cause the mind to reflect upon these sensations we have experienced and form thoughts and ideas, building our knowledge. This is where we collect our simple ideas, which then build and grow into complex ideas. Sensation helps us to form simple, very basic ideas. Reflection of those sensations causes us to add those stored simple ideas together to form a complex idea, thereby adding to our knowledge base. The notion of combining or compounding ideas and the reverse notion of analyzing them marks the beginning of the mental -chemistry approach to the problem of association. (Schultz Schultz, 2008 2007 Pg. 41) Association is, simply put, learning. SCIENCE Charles Darwin is probably one of the most renowned scientists who developed one of the most debated theories in history, the Theory of Evolution. Darwins ideas started formulating while he acted as the naturalist on a five-year voyage on the HMS Beagle. While aboard the Beagle, Darwin kept meticulous notes of his observations, and collected countless biologic and geologic specimens that were sent back to England. From these notes and specimens, Darwin penned three books on South American geology, published numerous scientific papers on zoology, and began his notebook on the transmutation of species. After his return, Darwin began communicating with breeders, zookeepers, naturalists, and gardeners to collect facts and gather evidence to support his theory of evolution. Two years later, Darwin became entranced by a two-year-old orangutan named Jenny, on display at the London Zoo. He was so taken by Jenny that he returned several times to observe and interact with her, until she died from an illness after only two years in captivity. Darwins reaction was that of profound astonishment evident in his notebook: Let man visit Orangoutang in domestication, see its intelligenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and then let him boast of his proud pre-eminenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Man in his arrogance thinks himself a great work, worthy the interposition of a diety. More humble, and I believe true, to consider him created from animals (as cited in Schultz, Schultz 2008 2007, Pg. 125). Darwin was not the first scientist to broach the subject of evolution. Ancient Greek philosophers argued the evolution of all life forms from air and water. A century before Darwin was born, German philosopher Immanuel Kant had a theory that closely resembled Darwins. He surmised that all life forms came from one single ancestor, and lower life forms may have adapted and evolved as needed for survival. Erasmus Darwin, Charless grandfather, also wrote of the relationship of all forms of life. While evolution was not necessarily a new or original concept, but the evidence and data Darwin collected, accompanied by his Origin of Species, was enough to start the chain of events that changed the direction of psychology. From Darwins theory of evolution came a deepening interest in studying the similarities of mental processes between humans and animals, prompting the field of comparative psychology, the study of animal behavior. Comparative psychology elicited the works of behaviorists Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, both of whom were highly influential in launching the behaviorist movement. Darwins theory of natural selection lead psychologists to delve deeper into researching individual differences amongst people in an attempt to find out why some thrived while others barely rise above average. Alfred Binets intelligence tests were developed while the focus on individual differences was burgeoning, as intelligence is a major focus for studying differences between individuals. Evolutionary psychology was obviously, spawned by Darwins theory. Evolutionary psychology is a field of cognitive psychology that is dedicated to explaining the causes of human behavior based upon adaptation and natural selecti on. Darwins theory of evolution took the spotlight off structuralism, and shined it directly at functionalism. The structuralism theories and works of Wundt and Titchener were not answering the questions that the psychologists of the time wanted answered. This switch to functionalism, catapulted by Darwin, sparked a desire to apply psychology to everyday life and the issues people face and of how adapt and function in different environments. CONCLUSION Rene Descartes, a 17th century French philosopher and mathematician brought about a spreading desire to explain the mind-body problem. This was the beginning of modern psychology. What followed was a stream of philosophers formulating theories and scientists who helped to make psychology and specific field of science. Many of the theories of the founding fathers of psychology, whether philosopher, scientist, physiologist, purveyor of structuralism or functionalism, are outdated and have been proven to be highly inaccurate, or completely without validity. Few theories have been able to stand the test of time, regardless of their influence and contributions to the field. John Lockes theories were the basis for a completely different view of child psychology and still hold validity today. While Locke was not completely correct with his idea of tabula rasa, starting life with a blank slate, the notion that our experiences shape who we become and are highly influential to our development is still a valid argument. Nature vs. nurture is one of the most valid theories in psychology today, and Lockes theory is derived from the nurture side. Charles Darwin did not start the concept of evolution, the theory had been circulating for centuries before he even cracked open his first notebook. However, his theories of evolution and natural selection set the tone for studies and research that continues to thrive. His theory of natural selection is valid in that we are constantly adapting and changing as our environment and circumstances change. Darwins theory came from every area of study from geology to zoology, and biology to animal husbandry. Those avenues of information and the combining of knowledge from different fields and areas of science are still open to us and have been extremely beneficial in continuing to broaden our efforts to explain the behavior of our fellow human beings. Darwins theory highlighted the importance of studying individuals, and continues with behavior analysts and experimental psychologists worldwide. With the thoroughness and painstakingly detailed documentation and supporting evidence Darwin col lected it would be difficult to pinpoint much that is not valid today from a psychological standpoint. The only true debates where Darwins theories are concerned seem to stem from religion circles and creationists, which has little bearing on the attempt to explain human behavior. Reference Page Schultz, Duane P. Schultz, Sydney E., (2008, 2007), History of Psychology PS210, Cengage Learning: Mason, OH. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/darwinism/

Pharmacist Role In Developing Countries Health And Social Care Essay

Pharmacist Role In Developing Countries Health And Social Care Essay Introduction: Since last decades despite tremendous advancements in medical technology, the global health status needs to be revamped. The commitment of the majority of World Health Organization (WHO) member countries to the Declaration of Alma-Ata in 1978 advocates the concept of health for all. Unfortunately the fundamental doctrine of the declaration is failed to be reaffirmed by some of the developing countries.1 The developing nations harbor 80% of the worlds population and it been estimated that 2.7 billion people living in this part of the world thrive on less than US$2 a day.2,3,4 This, in turn, contributed to lack of access to efficient healthcare services among these populations. Moreover, in most of these developing countries, the deliveries of effective healthcare services are compromised due to incompetent and non-qualified healthcare providers. Apart from the need to understand the pathophysiology of disease and their treatment modalities, healthcare providers necessitate to comprehend the local environment or/and culture in order to achieve the desired therapeutic outcomes. Therefore, the reorientation and reconstruction of healthcare professionals education and training to generate socially motivated healthcare providers is the need of time. Pharmacist role in developing countries: In the beginning of the 6th century BC, humans started a several-centuries-process of compiling pharmacological knowledge that contributed towards public health.5 The scope of pharmacy practice encompasses areas of compounding and dispensing medications, services related to patient care including clinical services, reviewing medications for safety and efficacy, and providing drug information. Generally, the existing medical education system produces professionals which have a tendency towards clinical practice or either specialization. Preference is more towards treatment rather than prophylaxis. Moreover, professional training emphasized on subject-centered curriculum linked with high technology and therefore, trainees come in contact with patients usually at the end of the training. As a result, the role of pharmacists in healthcare system is generally bleak, but perhaps more so in developing and transitional economies. Still in some places pharmacists are increasingly assuming their role as health care workers. Their services include more patient-oriented, administrative and public health functions. This successful transition in pharmacy practice is the result of the implementation of educational programs aimed at making them responsive to the needs of the majority of the population6. In the context of developing countries, pharmacy profession only captured the imagination of only a small segment of the population as a vibrant healthcare profession. For instance, although HIV/AIDS is rampantly prevalent in many developing countries in Asia, Africa and South America, still pharmacist in these countries is underutilized as healthcare workforce in prophylactic campaigns. Furthermore, issues of public health dimensions that need collective action via intensive efforts of pharmacists and other healthcare team members are nearly non-existent in developing countries. This might be due to the fact that both public and other healthcare practitioners perceived that pharmacists are not well positioned to take such an active role in public health initiatives that are generally considered to be the domains of doctors and nurses preferably7. Lately, with the tremendous evolution of pharmacy practice in developed nations such as the UK, Australia and US, it thus becomes evident that pharmacists can contribute more towards Health for All agenda. Furthermore, there has been a great move by health policy makers and educators in developing skills and attitudes which are necessary to meet the healthcare needs of the majority of the people. This change has also influenced many developing countries to follow the trend. Therefore, within the last two decades extensive transitions had been observed in pharmacy curricula globally, mainly with the incorporation of social and behavioral sciences at many pharmacy schools Although a complete discussion linking social sciences with pharmacy is not possible in a single document, we try to provide a brief historical background on social pharmacy and pharmacy practice as well as the importance of social sciences in health. In the current document the authors discuss few case studies from developed countries which establish the relevant link of social and behavioral sciences to pharmacy curricula and, therefore, the importance of social sciences in pharmacy curriculum can thus be ascertained. The authors will also enumerate the achievements of the Universiti Sains Malaysia in incorporating social pharmacy subjects in undergraduate pharmacy education. Recent history of social sciences and pharmacy education: Since the early 1980s, efforts were undertaken to find out which areas of pharmacy practice can greatly contribute in pharmacy training. Among many recommendations, an independent committee of inquiry established under the aegis of the Nuffield Foundation advocated that social and behavioral science should be incorporated into the pharmacy undergraduate curriculum. Defined as the scientific study of human behavior, behavioral science is often associated with disciplines which deal with people and society including psychology, sociology and anthropology. Sociology studies an individuals actions as a social phenomenon, whereas behavior is explained and shaped by the society in which we evolve; reason for which, sociologists prefer to use the term social action in place of behavior. Behavioral science also includes social psychology and interpersonal communication. According to Morrall,8 the discipline of sociology demystifies the nature of health and illness, determines the social causes of disease and death, exposes power-factors and ethical dilemmas in the production of health care, and either directly or indirectly helps to create a discerning practitioner capable of more focused and competent decision making. Such a sociologically informed approach to health care is basically needed by all health workers including pharmacists. Due to this importance, institutions such as the schools of pharmacy and the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain suggested that aspects of sociology should be incorporated into the pharmacy undergr aduate curriculum for adequately preparing pharmacy students for their future practice. In a related opinion, the Royal Pharmaceutical Societys Education Committee advocated that all schools of pharmacy in their undergraduate programs should include teaching on the social science aspects of pharmacy.9 Why sociology for pharmacists? : Inadequacies and disparities in health care systems are still a major threat to global public health. In response to this, the last decades had witnessed an increasing number of changes in the activities of pharmacists. In primary care activities compounding and formulation of medicines are not practiced anymore. As technological progresses have made the dispensing of medicines a more routine task, how much time pharmacists spend on this activity is questioned. In addition, the number of highly effective proprietary medicines available for sale from a pharmacy, which were previously only available on prescription, has increased and thus expected to increase still further. As such, it is predicted that in near future pharmacists will be able to prescribe medicines as supplementary prescribers in developing countries. These facts have led pharmacists to re-evaluate their roles, and to promote themselves as health professionals as they must consider them selves as experts in medicines capable to take the lead of patients health status and the outcomes of different therapeutic regimen. In secondary care, clinical and ward pharmacy have become important concepts, with pharmacists increasingly being integrated into the health care teams alongside acquiring specializations i.e. in drug information, oncology, paediatrics and radiopharmacy. The contribution of social science to pharmacy practice: Pharmacy services in developing countries could make a greater contribution to health care. Steps to ensure that pharmacy education provides students with the knowledge and skills to contribute to public health priorities of their local populations are increasingly seen as an important goal of pharmacy education. Clearly, in developing their professional skills in social and clinical pharmacy, students need to appreciate that patients will have their own beliefs, views, and perspectives about their health and use of medicines which might be important determinants of the success of any health promotion activities. These activities include development effective counseling and communication skills, enhancing medication compliance, improving the understanding of ones disease, encouraging patients to seek professional care, assisting patients in making informed decision, and enhancing pharmacy professionalism and leadership qualitie s. Global Case Studies Developed Countries In 1975, the study commission on pharmacy identified the need to incorporate the behavioral and social sciences in pharmacy alongside clinical practice. In the same year, the Council on Pharmaceutical Education included pharmacy administration, social and behavioral sciences in their indicative curriculum. As per 2004, the American Association of College of pharmacy10 incorporates many social and behavioral topics as required outcomes of pharmacy programs in the USA. In UK, the Nuffield Committee of inquiry into pharmacy decided behavioral sciences to be incorporated into undergraduate pharmacy curriculum in 1986. To date, social pharmacy is now taught in all schools of pharmacy and forms part of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society ¢s indicative curriculum. A number of Northern and Eastern European countries introduced social pharmacy into their curricula in the mid-1970 ¢s11. In Sweden, courses were taught since 1957, dealing with social pharmacy and low/regulations in pharmacy which in 1970 transformed to social pharmacy. In Denmark, the first social pharmacy course was introduced in 1972-73 and by 1980 the course appeared in the course catalogue as social pharmacy with social science. In 1992, a chair in social pharmacy was established at Royal Danish School of Pharmacy. In Belgium, the concept of communication skills was introduced into the pharmacy fourth year students. A variety of methods that are used to assess pharmacy practice students , including a 6-month pharmacy internship, in which students are assessed by a preceptors report; a week-long workshop on communication and pharmacotherapy; a multiple choice exam on pharmacotherapy; and an open book oral exam. In the academic year 2000-01, the strongest correlations were between internship and oral exam performance. This trend continued in 2001-02, in addition to multiple choice exam correlating with both oral and internship performance. Developing Countries In the scenario of developing countries the contribution of pharmacy education in Malaysia is worth mentioning. The Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) is the first public university to offer a Bachelors degree in Pharmacy in Malaysia since 1972. To date, it has produced more than 2,000 pharmacy graduates which serve as local pharmacy workforce. The School of Pharmaceutical Sciences has a multi-disciplinary pharmacy curriculum designed to provide holistic training to  prepare students for life-long learning, and to equip them with broad scientific knowledge and essential skills. The integrated pharmacy program consists of basic science and pharmaceutical science subjects in the first two years of study, and progresses towards patient care and clinical pharmacy. In the third and fourth years, the students professional skills are linked to an advanced clinical and pharmacy practice. Hence the curriculum inculcates a high standard of pharmacy training in practical knowledge and profession al skills. The 4-year program covers 6 disciplines of study, namely Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Physiology, Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacy and Social and Administrative Pharmacy. Social and Administrative Pharmacy subjects were first incorporated in the curriculum in 1992-93 academic sessions and has been designed to prepare students for responsible leadership positions in academia, industry or public service.12 Hence this course equips the students for careers in governmental agencies, pharmaceutical firms, community pharmacies, universities, professional bodies and health insurance companies, all of which have a direct and indirect impact on the social fabric of the country. Students learn to give optimum services to the patients, as well as to make them aware about the prevention and cure of diseases. The Discipline of Social and Administrative Pharmacy (DSAP) at USM is committed to promote research in drug use problems in developing countries.13 At present more than fifty postgraduate students from more than ten developing countries are being guided by the faculty members in carrying out drug-related research in their countries as well as in Malaysia. The priority areas of research of DSAP are multidisciplinary and include pharmacoeconomics, pharmacoepidemiology/ pharmacovigilance, socio-behavioral aspects of health and pharmacy, pharmaceutical care, outcomes research, quality of life assessment, decision analysis, and pharmaceutical management and marketing. Additional domains of research include pharmaceutical public policy, pharmaceutical education, pharmacoinformatics and pharmaceutical anthropology. Another striking example is the case of Ghana, where pharmacists are often the most easily accessible health professionals to give consultation on health problems14. The incorporation of a landmark health promotional module in pharmacy course in Kumasi, Ghana comprises of both classroom activity as well as outdoor field work. This field work component enables the student to prepare health promotional materials by visiting and observing their local population and thus identify and explore their local compromised resources. This module thus serves to prepare Challenges for social pharmacy: A good example of how social pharmacy faces challenges can be gained from the recent review by Puspitasari et al 15 , which focused on counseling given to patients who purchase prescription medicines from community pharmacies. Their data showed that the nature of researchers relationships with the profession, measures to improve community pharmacy practices, the importance of learning from other disciplines, and the need to internationalize our discipline challenge social pharmacy research works. In addressing the role of a pharmacy, some authors16, 17 have previously suggested that pharmacists should have an increasing role in patient care and that patient counseling is one of the cornerstones of this new role. The very wide variation in counseling rates found by Puspitasari and the colleagues (8 to 80% of patients received verbal counseling) suggests that this new role is carried out more in some settings than others. Social pharmacy research had pla yed and still continues to play an important role in documenting this practice variation. Based on these reports, one of the major challenges is how to improve the practice of those settings and practitioners who are currently lagging behind. Clearly, researchers dealing with social pharmacy and pharmacy practice tread a delicate line. In order to accomplish the research findings of social pharmacy into practice the relationship of the social pharmacist with the practitioners must be close and positive enough that practitioners must listen to and involve themselves in the implementation of findings in the hope of improvements in pharmacy practice. In addition, researchers need to be independent enough so that they can identify the need for improvement, and advocate in the interest of public health. Non-pharmacists social pharmacy researchers face an additional set of challenges and pressures which mainly include their own recognition within social pharmacy.18 As pointed out by Puspitasari et al,15 studies on improvements in community pharmacy practice are urgently needed. Previous studies highlighted that motivated, innovative pharmacists can provide effective secondary services, which are undoubtedly important; 19, 20 however, interventional research studies in order to assess or improve the performance of the present pharmacist or pharmacy assistants are the need of time. Substantial information on how to improve present pharmacy practice exists in other professions also, and this can be instrumental in bringing changes in social pharmacy. For instance, the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organization of Care Review Group have a long-term experience in dealing with practice improvement.21,22 Overall, the major outcome of these works is the passive dissemination of information, i.e. written materials and lectures are not effective in changing practice. However, reminders and interactive educational meetings are effective strategies as they promote discussion and educational outreach. Multifaceted interventions tend to be more effective than single ones. Reviews of evidence on specific issues, such as interventions aimed at improving the use of antimicrobials have produced similar findings.23 Strategies for improving practice are a key concern in most health professions such as pharmacy, medicine, nursing, but are dealt with separately in each profession. Although differences may exist between professions and countries, practice researchers in each discipline can learn considerably by interacting with each other. Social pharmacy research is done in few developed countries: USA, UK, the Netherlands, Finland, Australia, and Canada. According to Ryan et al,11 social pharmacy is taught in seventeen countries those above plus four more Scandinavian countries, more European countries, New Zealand, and very few countries in the developing world. Thus the dissemination of social pharmacy research still remains a major challenge, especially in developing countries where there are documented problems in the purchase, distribution, and use of medicines. To overcome these problems, one possibility would be to establish strategic alliances with countries already working in these areas or with organizations such as the World Health Organization and Management Sciences for Health (www.msh.org) that have expertise, experience, and commitment to improve access to and use of medicines in developing countries. Conclusion: Social pharmacy program can be approached globally through various course types and formats. These courses make the students expose and explore societal concerns and health inequalities in their respective resource-deficient settings. Practical application of some components makes the student aware of the impact of sociodemographic on health and illness and inculcates sound understanding of the culture as well as social and moral obligations towards society in general and individual in particular. With regard to Universiti Sains Malaysia, constructive discussion to incorporate social-behavioral concepts and principles into other courses throughout the pharmacy curriculum can make the future prospects bright for social pharmacy. Students should be taught social pharmacy concepts and principles in every subject as pharmacoeconomics, pharmacoepidemiology, socio-behavioral aspects of health and ethical issues could and should be discussed during lectures and prior to clinical rotations. This shift in pharmacy practice from a product- to an information- and patient-based orientation affects patient knowledge, and increases liability and health care costs, which continue to place pharmacists in a position of great responsibility.

Kraft Foods, High Performance Work Systems (HPWS) Essay -- Case Study

In 1995, Kraft was created through the reorganization and merger of J. L. Kraft, Oscar Meyer, and C. W. Post into one operating company. For the reorganization the Operations Division chose to use the High Performance Work Systems (HPWS) change management tool because they believed it was the best way to include all of the necessary elements that would contribute to the vision of undisputed leadership. They also liked the HPWS tool because of its strict structure and because it was a good platform to create and communicate a consistent management philosophy. HPWS allowed them to monitor all of their plants, new and old, for efficiency and effectiveness of the reorganization. Strengths of the Change Intervention Kraft Foods, Inc. approached their change initiative by researching and testing before implementing. The High Performance Work Systems (HPWS) was first implemented into three start-up plants. The HPWS method was successful and adopted by the new plants. HPWS helps determine factors such as total inventory, cost of production, and measurement of productivity. Once the HPWS method proved to be successful it was then implemented into the existing plants to help gain control of costs, waste, and productivity. Kraft was able to provide quality examples to the existing plants of how this method improved productivity and profits. Employees were able to embrace the change plan easier when they could actually see the possible improvements. Kraft had a bonus because the employees were able to see the method working in similar situations, which helped build trust and acceptance in the change plan. This method also empowered the employees giving them an opportunity to increase their skill levels and an opportuni... ...ecause of the communication tools provided through HPWS. â€Å"By consistently applying the tools across Operations, Kraft was assured that people and work systems were aligned† (Carter et al, p.37). In fact, most of their Champions became so adept at HPWS that they are now internal consultants for the company. That level of knowledge, commitment, and motivation among their people will surely allow Kraft to sustain momentum and realize future success. References Bridges, W. (2009). Managing Transitions: Making the Most of Change. Philadelphia, PA: Da Capo Press. Carter, L., Ulrich, D., & Goldsmith, M. (2005). Best Practices in Leadership Development and Organization Change: How the Best Companies Ensure Meaningful Change and Sustainable Leadership. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Kotter, J. P. (1996). Leading Change . Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

HISTORY AND ORIGINATORS OF KEYBOARD Essays -- essays research papers

HISTORY AND ORIGINATORS OF KEYBOARD BAROQUE PERIOD Harpsichord (Italian cembalo; French clavecin), stringed keyboard instrument in which the strings are plucked to produce sound. It was developed in Europe in the 14th or 15th century and was widely used from the 16th to the early 19th century, when it was superseded by the piano. In the 20th century the harpsichord was revived for performance of music of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, as well as for new compositions. The incisive sound quality of the plucked metal strings adds clarity to melodic lines. The harpsichord is particularly effective in performing contrapuntal music—that is, music that consists of two or more melodies played at the same time, such as that of the German composer Johann Sebastian Bach. Construction and Mechanism The harpsichord usually has a wing-shaped body, or case, like a grand piano; however, its proportions are narrower and longer, and the case and its inner bracing are normally lighter. Harpsichords have also been built in other shapes. Thes e include the virginal, or virginals, a small oblong instrument; the spinet, a small polygonal harpsichord; and the less common clavicytherium, an upright harpsichord. From the 16th to 19th century the terms spinet and virginal were often used interchangeably, and in England during that era any harpsichord was called a virginal. Harpsichords of any shape have the same plucking mechanism. For each string a small piece of material, or plectrum, is set in a thin slip of wood, or â€Å"jack,† which rests internally on the far end of the key. When the front of the key is depressed, the far end rises, and the plectrum plucks the string. The jack is pivoted so that, when the key returns to rest position, the plectrum slides by without striking the string. Since the volume and tone of the sound produced by the plucking mechanism remain constant regardless of the forcefulness of the keystroke, various methods have been developed to alter the harpsichord's sound. Many harpsichords have two strings for each key, with a row of jacks for each set of strings. Stops, or registers, allow the player to move unwanted sets of jacks slightly out of reach of the strings, thus making possible different volumes and combinations of tone colors. One set of strings may sound an octave above normal pitch. Some 18th-century German harpsichords had a set of strings so... ...18th-century instruments, often incorporating the best of the 19th-century innovations. Electronic Organs Electronic and electric organs, developed in the 20th century, are not organs in the strict sense, for they do not produce sound by air vibrating in a pipe; rather, they are instruments in their own right. One kind, invented in 1935 by an American, Laurens Hammond, utilizes electrical circuits and amplifiers to produce and enlarge the sound. Another kind uses electronic devices such as vacuum tubes. Although such instruments are often designed to imitate the tone qualities of pipe organs, they are frequently criticized for a pinched or artificial-seeming sound. Electronic organs were widely used in the rock bands of the 1960s and after. In such bands, which use extensive electrical sound amplification and manipulation, the distinctive qualities of electronic-organ sound are exploited for their own sake. Reed Organs Keyboard instruments in which the wind supply is directed tow ard free metal reeds like those of a harmonica or accordion are called reed organs. They include the melodeon, developed in the United States about 1825, and the harmonium, developed in Germany about 1810.

Frankenstein and Of Mice and men Frankenstein and Of Mice And Men are :: English Literature

Frankenstein and Of Mice and men Frankenstein and Of Mice And Men are different in almost every way. They are written in different times, by different classes Frankenstein and Of Mice and men Frankenstein and Of Mice And Men are different in almost every way. They are written in different times, by different classes of people and in different areas of the world where life is dissimilar to the extreme. The primary characters are nothing like each other, and the books are written in contrasting styles. Frankenstein is about a scientist who inadvertently creates a monster in his pursuits of the reanimation of deceased creatures. It is concerned with the life of the scientist and his anguish when the creature that he has made turns evil, and homicidal. Of Mice And Men is about two migrant ranch worker's quest to actualise the 'American Dream' whilst trying to avoid tribulation on the ranch where they are earning their living. However,there are some similar themes in the two novels, for example, the loneliness ofthe primary characters, and the way society reacts to something that is considered 'atypical' by their standards. In this essay, Frankenstein and Of Mice And Men will be critically compared and contrasted. Themes in the novels will be taken into account, as well as the use of language and the social and historical background to the novels. This will be closed by a conclusion where the main points will be brought up again. Isolation is one of the most frequent occurrences in the two novels. In Of Mice And Men, Lennie is disassociated from the others, not because he wants to be, but because of his low intellect he is considered 'different' by the men on the ranch, and society. This is much like the situation of Frankenstein's monster. Because of his displeasing appearance, he is abhorred by society and forced to live away from it, secluded in forests and so on. '"Finding the door open, I entered. An old man sat in it, near a fire, over which he was preparing his breakfast. He turned on hearing a noise; and perceived me, shrieked loudly, and quitting the hut ran across the fields..."'. Other characters in Of Mice And Men, for example Crooks, are victims of this forced isolation. Crooks is a black man in a predominantly white area. Black people had been brought to America due to the Slave Trade, but even though it was abolished, black people were still seen as slaves, and below white Americans. '"'Cause I'm black. They play cards in there, but I can't play because I'm black. They say I stink."' Another character that is a target for this is Curley's wife.

Homosexuality in the Christian Church Essay

Homosexuality is defined as consistent fantasy, interest and arousal toward a person of the same sex. Disagreement exists about the explanation of homosexuality. On the other hand, evidence supports the fact that homosexuality has existed throughout the history of humankind and is not just a development of the 20th century. Early psychoanalytic theory concluded that homosexuality developed from conflicts derived from early developmental disturbances. Investigators more in recent times have explored neuroendocrine explanations as a cause of homosexual development. The results of these studies have been controversial. On the other hand, a lot of experts believe that sexual orientation, whether heterosexual or homosexual, is the consequence of a multifaceted interface flanked by anatomic and hormonal influences during fetal growth. As investigators attempt to reply the question of etiology, others have worked to further define the incidence of homosexuality. Cognitive and communal expansion throughout adolescence is an intricate progression characterized by the acquisition of a sense of self-separate from family, a sexual independence, the capacity for intimacy and the ability to be autonomous. (The Christian Science Monitor) For those young people who grow a homosexual orientation in a society based on heterosexuality, the changeover all the way through adolescence is expanded and expressed to some extent in a different way throughout the stage of acquiring a sexual uniqueness. Interviews with gay and lesbian youth specify a general pattern in which an adolescent accepts his or her own homosexuality. It is the sexual orientation toward people of the same sex. Homosexuality contrasts with heterosexuality, sexual orientation toward people of the opposite sex. People with a sexual orientation toward members of both sexes are called bisexuals. Female homosexuals are often called lesbians. In modern years, the word gay has been applied to both homosexual men and women. Homosexuality appears in almost all societal contexts within unlike community settings, socioeconomic levels, and cultural and dutiful groups. The number of homosexuals in the inhabitants is not easy to find out, and dependable data do not subsist. Nevertheless, current estimates propose that the term homosexual may relate to 2 to 4 percent of men. Estimates for lesbians are lesser. Not all people who slot in homosexual commotion essentially classify themselves as homosexual. (Zgourides, G. ) The move toward greater unity among Protestant denominations has continued in the 21st century; however, within denominations there is still conflict between conservatives and moderates or liberals. One for the most part divisive issue is homosexuality. Denominations debate whether to ordain practicing homosexuals and whether to bar clergy from performing same-sex marriage ceremonies. Some churches condemn all homosexual activity, while others refuse to do so. Consequently, according to the same religious law that many of them use when religiously citing the gay and lesbian community, countless, reputable Christian leaders today, especially within African America, are in a word adulterers. However, you will not readily read of religious leaders publicly denouncing the social and spiritual validity of their fellow divorced clergy who have married more than once, like you will their `cry loud and spare not’ public cries relating to gay and lesbians desiring the equal choice and right to marry only once. There exists no evidence that suggests Jesus ever discussed same-sex anything, publicly or privately, during his ministry. However, Christ, the bedrock of modern-day Christianity, did publicly condemn religious leaders of his age for granting bills of divorcement. However, wading through all the hype in the media these days one might just conclude the opposite. (Knutson, D. C. ) It is considered an act of unconditional grace to say that the immeasurable, unmerited grace available from God stops only at the sin of adultery. Does God’s amazing grace cover only those sins of Old Testament law that are socially comfortable by today’s standards? Let me put it another way: Is divorce (absent of unfaithfulness) a sin? Many Christians might respond, and there is plenty of scripture to back that up. Then will God consider the bed of that remarried person defiled? Most would probably respond, No, absolutely not, because of the New Testament law of grace, and there is plenty of scripture to support this. Christian churches historically have discriminated, excluded, and persecuted homosexuals on the basis of their sexuality. The emergence of new social attitudes and modernization has contributed to the easing of such taboos. However, the role of the church to defend minorities has led to serious conflicts between the gay community and the church’s prohibition of homosexuality. Within the Christian churches, homosexually oriented people have been excluded, marginalized and persecuted in the great majority of cases. The relatively few exceptions, which are known, are seldom taken into account. John Boswell, from whom the most important studies in this area have come, has found examples of liturgical forms for the union of same-sex partners from the churches of Asia Minor. Nevertheless, it must be said in general that in societies, which have morally proscribed homosexual relations, treated them as taboo or legally forbidden them, the sexual ethic upheld by the churches has not represented a divergent position. (Bauserman, R. ) New reflection by the churches in this area began only under the influence of a shift in social attitudes towards sexuality. The processes of modernization and secularization were accompanied by a removal of sexuality from the realm of taboo and a new respect for the private sphere. Furthermore, since the end of the 19th century modern sexual research has brought new insights into how the sexual identity of persons is formed. In addition, constitutional provisions guaranteeing the rule of law have made it possible for the first time for homosexual people to organize and struggle publicly for the abolition of discriminatory laws and regulations. For the most part the churches have supported the decriminalization of homosexuality only hesitantly. Nor was this new orientation primarily the consequence of new biblical insights or spiritual experiences; rather, the reconsideration was touched off by other factors. In the first place, personal encounter with gay or lesbian people, once they no longer had to conceal themselves but could begin to speak for themselves, was certainly important. As a rule, living alongside homosexual persons on the job, in the neighborhood, within the circle of friends or relatives leads to a reconsideration of traditional social or individual prejudices. A second factor was the exposure of individuals or groups in a good number of churches and congregations to the investigations and findings of modern empirical research on sexuality. However, this research is academically institutionalized (usually in connection with faculties of medicine) in only a few countries; and church declarations on sexual ethics draw explicitly on scientific sexological research only rarely and usually in passing. Finally, it should be noted that quite a few churches have accepted the decriminalization of homosexuality and the principle of non-discrimination against people because of sexual orientation through decisions by their competent governing bodies without however immediately reconsidering their own moral convictions and reservations on the issue. Churches time and again have a great deal of freedom for autonomous structuring of their ordinances and especially their offices. They should work at abolishing any remaining discrimination because of individual sexual orientation in the right to hold office and accept homosexual persons as office-bearers of course, as in the case of all office-bearers, according to the measure of their suitability for the growth of the community. (Boswell, J)